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ADVANCED 




Including in one volume the Dime Question Books on 

General Literature, General History, 

Astronomy, Mythology, Rhetoric, 

Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, 

Geology, and Physios. 

with 

COMPLETE ANSWERS, NOTES, QUERIES, ETC, 

BY 
ALBERT P. SOUTH WICK. 



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SYRACUSE, N. Y.I 



C. W. JBARIDEEN, PUBLISHER, 
1883. 



Copyright, 1888, by Albert P, Soutfawick. 



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Since 1866 the Regents of the State ef New York have held 
examinations three times a year in all the Academies and 
Academic Departments of the Union Schools, granting certifi- 
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after passiDg this examination, the questions are made to em- 
brace all that is 'practical in the above branches. In all these 
9,000 questions not a single unimportant or " catch " question 
can be found. They are now used as text-books in many of 
the leadiDg schools of the country. Cornell University, and 
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pupils who have passed an examination upon these questions. 
Students must pass these examinations before tbey are ad- 
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first pass one of these examinations. 
The following TEN EDITIONS are published : 
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Address, 

C, W. BARDEEN, Publisher, 

SYRACUSE, ii.V. 



s> 






LITERATURE. 



1. Give a definition of Literat/wre. 

2. What was the origin of Literature? 

Ans. — Egypt had her literature in the form of hi- 
eroglyphics (priestly writings). These characters — 685 in 
number — were the germ of an alphabet and were in part 
phonetic. The cuneiform, wedge-shaped or arrow-headed 
characters of the Babylonians and Assyrians were not 
truly phonetic. "It was reserved for the Phoenicians 
to adopt the apparently simple, yet ingenious and beauti- 
ful, device of determining the few elementary sounds of 
language and appropriating one distinctive character to 
represent each sound." 

Note.— The Hindoos had a voluminous literature containing 
the three Vedas— supposed to have heen written about 4,000 years 
ago—; the Persians, the Zendervester (or Zend Avesta) of Zoroas- 
ter and other writings. The Old Testament is an example of the 
Hebrew Literature. 

Query.— What are the " Seven Bibles " of the world? What 
was the " Rosetta Stone "? Who was Firdousi? 

8. What is the history of the alphabet? 

Ans. —The Greeks derived their alphabet from the 
Phoenicians. The Romans adopted the Greek, and the 
Roman alphabet is the basis of our modern ones. Pliny 
states that " Cadmus brought sixteen letters from Phce- 



6 Dime Question Books. 

nicia into Greece, to which Palamedes, in the time of the 
Trojan war, added four more, and Simonides afterwards 
added four." 

Note.— The origin of languages, like that of natlons4s frequently 
lost in the darkness that shrouds primitive history. Modern schol- 
ars have proved that Cadmus is a mere fabled name signifying 
" the East." Still the transition from the Phoenician to the Greek 
may be readily seen by examining their alphabets. 

4. What were the first forms of literary art? 

Ans. — The Greek Literature. The oldest poems (poetry 
preceded prose) are the epics of Homer, — 880 B. C, — the 
Iliad (from Ilium, the name of Troy,) and the Odyssey. The 
Iliad is a history of the Trojan war, and the Odyssey de- 
scribes the adventures of Ulysses, King of Ithaca, after the 
fall of Troy. 

Note.— Read Pope's or Bryant's translation. 

Query.— Who was Penelope ? What is an epic poem ? What 
English scholars have written on the authorship of Homer? Ans.— 
Barnes, Gladstone, and Blackie. Professor Joshua Barnes, of the 
University of Cambridge, England, in the reign of Queen Anne, 
who edited Homer, Anacreon, and Euripedes, wrote a poem to 
prove that Solomon was the author of the Iliad. His object was to 
raise money to publish his Homer. 

5. What works constitute the " Bible of the 
Greeks"? 

Ans. — The writings of Homer and Hesiod (who lived 
about 789 B. C), because they put in writing the belief 
about the gods. The writings of Hesiod are the " TJieogo- 
ny" and " Works and Days." 

Query.— When was the " Legendary Age " ? 

6. What writers were of later origin ? 



LlTEBATUliE. 7 

Ans. — TyrtSBus — a lame school-master at Athens (720 
B. C.) wrote elegies — whose stirring songs had a great in- 
fluence in the Messenian war. Also Simonides of Ceos. 
Sappho, Alcssus, Anacreon, and Pindar (522 B. C.) are the 
most famous names in lyric poetry. The drama, during 
the age of Pericles (469-399 B. C), was distinguished by 
Such names as Aeschylus. Sophocles, and Euripedes, in 
tragedy, and Aristophanes, Phrynicus, and Menander, in 
comedy. 

Note.— The writings of Euripedes are Hecuha, Orestes, Me- 
dea, Alcestis, Bacciiw, Ion, Andromache, Suppliants, Iphigenia in 
Taurus, Hercules Furens, Cyclops, etc., etc. Those of Aristopha- 
nes are AcJiamians, Knights, Clouds, Wasps, Frogs, Peace and 
Birds, Jjysistrate, etc. Aeschylus was killed hy the descent ef a 
tortoise, which an eagle let fall on his bald pate, mistaking it for a 
rock. 

Query.— What is the fable of Cymon and Iphigenia ? 

7. Who was Herodotus ? 

Ans. — The celebrated Greek historian, styled "The 
Father of History," born in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor, 
about 484 B. C, and is supposed to have died in 
Thurii, Italy, about 420 B. C. He is said to have been exiled 
from Halicarnassus by the tyrant Lygdamis, and travelled 
in Greece, Africa, Asia, and Europe, noting the manners 
and customs of the people whom he visited, the scenery, 
cities, temples, etc. He returned to Halicarnassus about 
455, and assisted in expelling Lygdamis. He removed soon 
after to Athens, and occupied himself with the composition 
of his great work, which is comprised in nine books. Its 
principal subject is the internal struggles of the Greeks, but 
he has introduced narratives of the histories of the Per- 
sians, Medes, Egyptians, and other peoples. He is consid- 
ered the most reliable of all ancient historians, the only 
drawback being his undue love for the marvelous. When 



S Dime Question Books. 

he writes fr< m his own observation, he is truthful and ac- 
curate. His style is elegant and harmonious, and his book 
is prized as a rare composition as well as a history. 

Note.— Information in regard to Egypt was, until the present 
century, derh ed chiefly from Herodotus, from some fragments of 
a history written in Greek by Manetho, an Egyptian priest, in the 
third century, B. C, and from the writings of Diodorus Siculus, 
who lived in the first century. 

Query. -What were the results of the excavations of Dr. 
Bchliemann (1869-73) on the site of Troy ? 

8. Name the other Grecian Historians. 

Ans.— Thucydides, (born 471 B. C); Xenophon, (born 
441 B. C); Polybius, (born second century B. 0.), and 
Plutarch, (second century A. D.) 

Note.— Thucydides wrote the Peloponnesian War. Xeno- 
phon, the Anabasis, Memorabili, Gycropc&dia (education of 
Cyrus), Hellenics, and minor works. Plutarch's ;< IAves " are 
called the Bible of Heroisms. 

Query.— What is the origin of the expression "He's a brick"? 
Ans.— Very few of the thousands who use this slang term know its 
origin or its primitive significance, according to which it is a grand 
thing to say of a man, "He is a brick! " The word used in its 
original intent implies all that is brave, patriotic, and loyal. Plu- 
tarch in his life of Agesilaus, King of Sparta, gives us the meaning 
of the quaint and familiar expression : On a certain occasion an 
ambassador from Epirus, on a diplomatic mission, was shown by 
the king over his capital. The ambassador knew of the monarch's 
fame— knew that, though nominally only king of Sparta, he was 
ruler of Greece— and he had looked to see massive walls rearing 
aloft their embattled towers for the defence of tbe city, but he 
found nothing of the land. 

He marvelled much at this, and spoke of it to the king. " Sire," 
he said, "I have visited most of the principal towns, and I find no 
walls reared for defence. Why is this? " " Indeed, Sir Ambas- 
sador," replied Agesilaus, " thou can'st not have looked carefully. 
Oome with me to-morrow morning and I will show you the walls 
of Sparta." Accordingly, on the followiug morning, the king led 



LlTERATH&E, 9 

Ms guest out upon the plaiu where his army was drawn up in full 
array, and, pointing proudly to the patriot host, he said t " There 
thou beholdest the walls of Sparta— ten thousand men, and every 
man a brick." 

9. Who were the Grecian philosophers? 

Ans. — Thales, who lived in the sixth century B, C, the 
founder of the Ionic school; Pythagoras, who belonged to 
the same century, and established the Pythagorean school; 
Socrates, (469-399 B. C.) who did not teach any especial 
system of philosophy, but was engaged in breaking down 
prejudices and exposing fallacies; Plato, (429-347 B. O.) 
the founder of the Academic school, and Aristotle (384-322 
B. C.) the originator of the Peripatetic school, in the 
Lyceum at Athens. 

Query.— Who were the " Seven Wise Men "? Who established 
the deductive system of reasoning? Who is the " father " of the in- 
ductive system? 

10. By whom was oratouy practiced ? 

Ans. — Solon, Pisistratus, Miltiades, Aristides, Themis- 
tocles, Protagoras, Pericles, Aeschines, and Demosthenes. 

Note.— The teachings of her philosophers, and the orations of 
her statesmen form a prominent feature in the literature of 
Greece. Plato's works remain in the form of his " DialoguM.'' 
Demosthenes' " Orations " are published in five volumes. 

Quer y — What was tbe ; ' Phillipic "? How was Demosthenes 
cured of stammering? 

11. What are the four fine arts ? 

Ans. — Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, and Music. 
The three classic forms of architecture are the Doric, the 
Ionic, and the Corinthian. Sculpture and painting were 
highly cultivated among the Greeks, the former by 



10 Dime Question Books. 

Phidias and Praxitiles; the latter by Parrhasius, Zeuxis, 

and Appelles. 

Note.— Pliny 's anecdote of the contest between Parrhasius and 
Zeuxis will serve to illustrate the excellence to which these artists 
had attained. Zeuxis painted a cluster of grapesi. Upon their 
exhibition, the birds were deceived, and flew at them as if they 
were real ; whereupon the painter boasted of his success'. His 
rival, Parrhasius, not to be outdone, determined to deceive Zeuxis 
himself. One day he introduced the painter of the grapes to his 
studio, where was the picture which was to excel what Zeuxis had 
done. " Draw aside the curtain," said Zeuxis, " that we may see 
the painting." The curtain itself was the picture, and the painter 
of it was declared the greatest, beeause he had deceived the man 
who had deceived the birds. 

Query.— What is lyric poetry ? What are some of the depart- 
ments of literature for which Greece was famous f Name some 
prominent writer in eacn department. 

12. When was the beginning of Roman litera- 
ture? 

Ans.— The early history of Rome is given in an un- 
broken narrative by the Roman writers, but these romantic 
legends can no longer be regarded as real. The records of 
the early days of Rome are known to have been destroyed 
when the city was burned by the Gauls (890 B. C); and 
Livy, the earliest writer on Roman affairs whose works 
have come down to us, wrote 750 years after the founda- 
tion of the city, or about the time of the Christian era. 
About the commencement of the second century before 
Christ, we have the beginning of that Latin literature which 
we still read. Ennius was the father of Roman poetry; 
Platjtus, his contemporary, was a man of rich poetic 
genius; the elder Cato was the first prose writer of note; 
while Terence was the most famous of the comic poets. 

13. "What was the "Golden Age" of literature? 



LlTEEATUEE. 11 

Ans.— The Reign of Augustus, 27 B. C. to 14 A. D. 
Horace, Virgil, and all the most celebrated Latin poets 
and scholars were his friends. Among these were Ovid, 
author of the Metamorphoses, Heroides, Art of Love, etc. ; 
Cornelius Nepos, the biographer ; Titus Liyius 
(Livy), the great historian of Rome ; and Sallust, the his- 
torian of the Jugurthine War and the conspiracy of Catiline. 

Note.— Among other distinguished writers of this age or the 
times immediately preceding it are Lucretius ; Catullus, 
" author of lyrics tliat are among the sweetest and most poetic 
things in the Latin language " ; Martial, the writer of epigrams ; 
Pliny, the writer on natural history (killed, 79 A. D., hy the great 
eruption from Vesuvius, which buried the cities of Pompeii and 
Herculaneum) ; Juvenal, the satirist; and Tacitus, the histo- 
rian, during the " last days of Rome." 

14. What is the Aeneid ? 

Am — An epic poem by Virgil, author of the Georgics, 
Bucolics etc., which relates the story of Aeneas, a Trojan 
hero, who flees from burning Troy (see Homer's Iliad), 
and, after years of wandering, lands in Italy and founds a 
city. 

Note.— Horace, who was a witty and vivacious song- writer, 
Is the author of many poems, odes, satires, and epistles. 

Tacitus wrote The Annals, The History, The Germania, and 
Agricola. 

Query.— Wherein does Poetry differ from Prose? What are the 
chief departments of Roman literature? Name a prominent au- 
thor in each department 

15. Before the "Dark Ages" what books 

were written ? 

Am — Following the decline of Rome were the "Dark 
Ages "—extending from the fifth to the fifteenth century — 
which were unproductive of real literature, but immedi- 



12 Dime Qitestion Books. 

ately preceding them there arose a set of theological writ- 
ers both in Greek and Latin, who are known collectively as 
the " Christian Fathers." Among the most famous of these 
are:— 

Tertullian, born at Carthage 160, who was the first 
of the Latin writers of the church. His chief work " Apo- 
logy for Christians," 'was written about 198. 

Origen, born in Egypt 185, was the editor and com- 
mentator of the Scriptures and wrote in Greek. 

Cyprian, who was Archbishop of Carthage in the mid- 
dle of the third century, wrote " Unity of the Church" and 
suffered martrydom under Valerain. 

Ambrose, born 340 in Gaul, was Archbishop of Milan. 
His chief work is "Be Officis." 

Athanasius, born in Alexandria, end of the third cen- 
tury. 

Gregory Nazianzen, born early in the fourth century 
in Cappadocia,— for a while Patriarch of Constantinople— 
noted as a writer of theology and religious poetry. 

Jerome, born in 340 in Dalmatia. He was especially 
learned in Hebrew, was the founder of monasticism. and 
his chief work is a translation of the Bible into Latin 
(known as the " Vulgate," a version for the common peo- 
ple: — from vulgus.) 

Augustine, born in Numidia, in Africa, 354. He was 
Bishop of Hippo in Africa, was called the father of Latin 
Theology and his chief works are " On the Grace of Christ" 
"Original Sin," "City of God" and "Confessions," (an 
autobiography). 

Chrysostom, (Gold-mouth, from his eloquence), was bora 
the same year at Antioch. Like Gregory he was also 
Patriarch of Constantinople. His works are written in 
Greek. 

Notk.— These dates are all A. D, 



16. When was the u Revival of Learning " ? 

Ans. — A new literature began to spring up in French, 
Spanish, Italian, and German about the time of the cru- 
sades (1096-1192), The first language to develop a new 
literature was the Romance of Southern France. The 
romance languages are the French, Spanish, and Italian. 
"While Europe however was sunk in the grossest ignorance, 
the Saracens were actively engaged in the cultivation of 
science, learning, and the arts. "The schools of Cordova 
vied with those of Bagdad in the collection of books and 
the encouragement of science, and from them proceeded 
nearly all that was original in the medicine, physics, and 
metaphysics of Europe during the middle ages." 

Note.— Even Charlemagne (742-814) was a great patron of 
learning and learned men. Fond of literary pursuits, lie pursued 
the whole range of mental science. The Middle Ages were not as 
dark as the name indicates. 

Query.— What are palimpsests? Who were the "Venerable 
Bede " and Alcuin ? 

17. What Universities were founded ? 

Ans. — The University of Oxford in England is said to 
have been founded by King Alfred (ninth century), but it 
was not a flourishing seat of learning till the eleventh 
century. In the year 1201, it contained 3,000 scholars. 
The University of Paris became famous at the beginning 
of the twelfth century, under the teachings of Abelakd. 
The University of Bologna had a roll of 1,000 students in 
the twelfth century; while the University of Paris, in the 
fifteenth century, numbered 25,000 students. Cambridge 
was founded in the thirteenth century. The earliest Ger- 
man university was that of Prague, established in 1350. 

Note.— In the eleventh and twelfth centuries was the rise of 
the new " scholastic philosophy," the chief feature of which was 



14 Dime Question Books. 

the application of the art of dialectics to subtle questions of meta- 
physics and theology, made famous by such Schoolmen as Aquinas, 
Scotus, Eoscelin, Anselm, and Peter Lombard. One of the ques- 
tions discussed with great interest was "How many angels can 
stand on the point of a needle ? " 

18. Who were Roger Bacon and Albertus 
Magnus ? 

Ans— Bacon was an English monk who with Magnus 
began to investigate mathematical and scientific questions, 
in the thirteenth century. They made wonderful advances 
in tru 2 knowledge, but each had to pay the penalty of being 
in advance of his age, for they were both punished as ma- 
gicians. 

19. "When was the beginning of Modern Lit- 
erature ? 

Ans. — A native literature had begun to spring up in the 
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The principal speci- 
mens are the German collection known as the Nibelungen 
Lied, the Spanish romance of the Gid, and the cycle of 
poetry relating to the British Arthur and his Knights of 
the Round Table. The real beginnings of our modern 
literature are the works of Dante, 1265-1321, and Chau- 
cer, 1328-1400. 

Note.— Read Longfellow's translation of Dante's Divina Corn- 
media (Divine Comedy). The first period of. the literary history of 
Italy also includes the names of Petrarch, 1304-1374, the lyric poet; 
and Boccaccio, 1313-1375, author of the "Decameron ," in prose. 
Chaucer visited Italy, is supposed to have seen Petrarch, and was 
At least much influenced by the literature of that country. 

20. What are Chaucer's works ? 

Ans. — The principal one is the Canterbury Tales. It la 



Literature. 15 

a collection of admirable daguerreotypes of the various 
classes of English society, and consists of twenty-four 
stories supposed to have been told by a company of pil- 
grims on their way to Canterbury. The others are the 
Bomaunt of the Base, Court of Love, Chaucer's Dream, Bok& 
of the Duehesse, Legend of Good Women, etc. 

Extract: — 

" And the rivere that I sat upon, 
It made such a noise as it ron, 
Accordaunt with the birdes armony, 
Methought it was the beste melody 
That mighte ben y heard of any man." 

Cuckow and the Nightingale. 

Note.— The works produced in England from 450 to 1050 were 
In Anglo Saxon, now a dead language ; Semi-Saxon, from 1150 to 
1250; Old English, from 1250 to 1350; Middle English, from 1350 to 
1550; and Modern English, from 1550 to the present day. The first 
three divisions have quite a voluminous literature, well worthy the 
study of the devoted student. 

Query.— Who was called the " Morning Star of the Reforma- 
tion " ? 

21. What are the nine periods of English lit- 
erature ? 

Ans.— I. The Age of Chaucer, 1350-1400. 
II. The Age of Caxton, 1400-1550. 

III. The Elizabethan Age, 1550-1625. 

IV. The Age of Milton, 1625-1660. 

V. The Age of the Restoration, 1660-1700. 
VI. The Age of Queen Anne, 1700-1750. 
VII. The Age of Johnson, 1750-1800. 
VIII. The Age of Scott, 1800-1830. 
IX. The Victorian Age, 1830-1882. 

22. Name other writers of Chaucer's age. 



16 Dime Question Books. 

Am.-— (I) William Langland (13321400), Piers the 

Plowman. (2) John Go wer— "Moral Gower," Chaucer 

calls him— (1320-1408) was the author of three great works, 

Speculum Meditantis, in Norman French; Vox Clamantis, 

in Latin ; and Confessio Amantis (A Lover's Confession), in 

English. English Prose Literature begins with (3) Sir John 

Mandeville (1300-1371), author of a book of Travels. (4) 

John Barbour (1316-1396) was the great Scottish poet of this 
age. 

23. Who were the writers of Caxton's age ? 

Ans — William Dunbar (1465-1520), The Dance of the 
Seven Deadly Sins. James I. (1394-1437), wrote a collec- 
tion of love verses under the title of the King's Quhair. 
(i. e. Quire or Book). John Skelton (1460-1529), Colin 
Clout, etc. Sir Thomas Moore (1503 1542), author of 
Utopia, a philosophical romance, written in Latin, 
Wyatt, Blind Harry, Surrey, Tyndale and Coverdale. 

24. What was the Elizabethan age ? 

An?. — The most glorious era of English literature. It is 
renowned for its three writers — Spenser, Shakespeare* and 
Bacon — either of whom would have made an age illus- 
trious. The first name is that of George Gascoigne (1530- 
1577) one of the founders of the great English school of 
the drama, " Steel Glass," "Fruits of War." Thomas Sack-- 
ville (1536-1608), "A Mirrour for Magistrates." Edmund 
Spenser (1533-1599) " TU Faerie Q#een," "Shepherd's Cal- 
endar " (a series of pastorals similar to Virgil's Bucolics), 
and " Mother Hubbard's Tale." 

25. Who has been called the "myriad- 
minded"? 

■ »— - ■■ " ■ ■ ■ . ii —. i- ■ i ■ ■■■■ ■■ — ■ " ■■ ■■.■■I. ■■■..I — ^— ^i 

*Most Shaksperian scholars now spell the name Shaksperc. 



Literature. IT 

Aks, —William Shakespeare, the greatest dramatist, and 
probably the greatest genius of all time, (1564-1616). His 
dramas are thirty-seven in number. Othello, Lear, and Ram- 
let are distinctly tragedies. As You Like It, Merry Wives 
of Windsor, Taming of the Shrew and Twelfth Night are 
comedies, while the rest are termed Historical Plays. 
Yenus and Adonis, "the first heir of his invention," was 
published in 1593. 

Extracts: — " Sweet are the uses of adversity ." — " As You 
Like It," Act I, Sc. 3.— Dtjse. 

'■"We are such stuff as dreams are made of." — "Tem- 
pest," Act IV, Sc. 1.— Prosfero. 

"Misery acquaints a man with strange bed-fellows." — 
" Tempest," Act II, Sc. 2.--Trth. 

"And the imperial vot'ress passed on 
In maiden meditation, fancy free," 

"Midsummer Night's Dream." Act II, Sc. 1. Oberon. 

" I'll put up a girdle round the earth in forty minutes." 
Same as above. — Puck. 

"Then must you speak of one that lov'd not wisely, but 
too well. ,, —' < Othello," Act Y, Sc. 2. 

26. "Who was the author of the " Novum. 
Organum " f 

Ans. — Sir Francis Bacon, known as Lord Bacon, (1561- 
1626). This was the second part of his Instauratio Magna, 
a work to consist of six books, three of which only were 
finished, a brief extract being given of the fourth. His 
Essays are the most popular. 

Selections :— ' ■ Knowledge is power. " "A little philoso- 
phy inclineth a man's mind to atheism, but depth in phi- 
losophy bringeth men's minds about to religion." Compare 



18 Dime Question Books. 

this with Pope's, " A. little knowledge is a dangerous 
thing." 

27. Who were the dramatic poets of this age? 

Am— Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593), " Tamburlane," 
and " Faustus." Bare Ben Jonson (1573-1637), second to 
Shakespeare only, u Every Man Out of his Humor" "Al- 
chemist" "Catiline" "Epicene, or the Silent Woman," 
"Fall of Sejames," "Tale of a Tub," " Masques," etc. 
Beaumont (1586-1615) and Fletcher (1576-1625), "who 
worked together with so intimate a union that it is impossi- 
ble, in the works composed before their friendship was 
dissolved by death, to separate their contributions," were 
the authors of " Maid's Tragedy," "A King and No King" 
"Laws of Candy," "Beggar's Bush," "Mule a Wife and 
Have a Wife," " Spanish Curate," etc. 

Philip Massinger (1584-1640), " Fatal Dowry," "Roman 
Actor" "Maid of Honor" "Unnatural Combat," "New 
Way to Pay Old Debts," etc. 

John Ford (1586-1639), " Witch of Edmonton," " Lover' » 
Melancholy," "Love's Sacrifice," etc. 

John Webster, "Duchess of Malfy" '''Guise, or the 
Massacre of France," " White Devil," etc. 

Note.— To this bright galaxy of names may be added Chap- 
man, Dekker, Middleton, Marston, Taylor, Totirneur, Broome, 
Hey wood, and Shirley. 

Query.— Who wrote " A Womani KiUed with Kindness " t Who 
was Sir Philip Sidney ? What courtier, soldier, adventurer, and 
writer, is the author of a History of the World (written in prison)? 
Who was the " well-languaged Daniel "? " Holy George Herbert " 
wrote what? Eoger Aschara (1515-1568) was tutor to Princess 
(Queen) Elizabeth; what are his works ? 

28. What other great writers wore there in 
the sixteenth century ? 



LrrBBAxusE. 19 

Aks. — In Italy, the historians Guicciardini (1482-1540); 
Machiavelli (1469-1527); the poets Ariosto (1474-1533), 
author of "Orlando Furioso "y Vittorio Colonna (1490- 
1547); and Tasso, who celebrated the First Crusade in his 
"Jerusalem Delivered.' 1 ' Cervantes (1547-1616) was a 
renowned Spanish writer. His immortal work is "Don 
Quixote." Rabelais (1483-1533), a famous French satirist, 
was a priest, and wrote a book called the " Life of Gar- 
ganiua and Pantagruel." . Montaigne (1533-1592) was a 
judge and mayor of Bordeaux, the author of "Essays.** 
Camoens (1524-1579), a Portuguese poet, is known princi- 
pally from his great work called the " Lusiadr" which 
celebrates the chief actors in, and events of, the history of 
Portugal. 

Query.— Who were Michael ADgelo, Raphael, Titian, Durer, 
Holbein, Copernicus, Galileo, and Tycho-Brahe ? 

29. Who is the author of "Paradise Lost" f 

Ans. — John Milton (1608-1674). His principal poetic 
works are " Paradise Regained ," " Comus" " Lyddas" 
" L* Allegro" and " H Penserosv." His prose writings are 
too numerous to mention. The writers of his age are the 
so-called metaphysical poets, and theologians. 

Query*— Who was Izaak Walton? What are the works of 
Jeremy Taylor? Who is the author of " Beligio Medici," (.Religion 
of a Physician)? 

30. Who is the greatest author of the "Res- 
toration Age " ? 

Ans.— John Dryden (1631-1700), who wrote dramas, 
poems, and essays, "Duke of Guise," " Wild Gallant" 
"Rival Ladies," "Hind and Panther," "Ode on St. Ceci- 
tia'sDay," "AUfw Love," and a " Translation of Virgil'* 
Aeneid." 



■20 Dime Question Books. 

Selections*— 

"Men are bnt children of a larger growth, " 

"Great wits are sure to madness near allied, 
And thin partitions do their bounds divide." 

" Three poets in three distant ages horn, 
Greece, Italy and England did adorn." 

Query.— What three poets? 

Note.— Samuel Butler (1612-1680) is the most illustrious literary 
representative of the Cavaliers. His great work is the burlesque 
Batire of " Hudibras." A large mass of Butler's miscellaneous 
writings have been published. 

31. Who were the contemporaries of Dry- 
den? 

Ans. — Locke, Newton, Boyle, Temple, Evelyn, Bun 
yan, L'Estrange, and Samuel Pepys (1682-1703), the author 
of a "Diary," which is a complete scandalous chronicle 
of a society so gay and debauched that the simple descrip- 
tion of what took place is equal to the most dramatic pic- 
ture of the novelist. 

Note.— There is a strong contrast between the drama of Eliza- 
beth and that of the Eestoration, and the latter part of the seven- 
teenth century produced a constellation of splendid dramatists, 
Sir George Etherege wrote the "Man of Mode or Sir Fopling 
Flutter"; William Wycherley, "Love in a Wood," "Country 
Wife," etc.; Sir John Vanbrugh, "Provoked Wife," "Aesop," 
and "Relapse "; George Earquhar, "Love and a Bottle," " Twin 
Rivals," " Stage Coach," and "Beaux' Stratagem." 

William Congreve, who stands at the head of comic dramatists, 
wrote " Old Bachelor," "Double Dealer," "Love for Love," (his 
master-piece), "Mourning Bride," and "Way of the World"; 
Thomas Otway, " Orplian" and " Venice Preserved"; Nathaniel 
Lee (died 1692), " Theodosius," "Mitliridates," and " Lucius Junius 
Brutus "; Thomas Sontherne, "Isabella, or the Fatal Marriage ," 
and the pathetic drama of " Oroonolto ": Nicholas Rowe. "Jane 
Shore," " Fair Penitent " and " Lady Jane Gray"; George Lille, 
" George Barnwell " and " Fatal Curiosity." 



Literature. 21 

32, What other great names in the literature 

of the seventeenth century ? 

Ans. — Calderon (1601-1681), a distinguished Spanish 
dramatist wrote about five hundred pieces. La Fontaine 
(1621-1705), aFrench poet, wrote " Fables." Moliere (1632- 
1673), aFrench dramatist, wrote many charming comedies, 
such as " Ls Bourgeois GentWiomme" (a text-book at Har- 
vard), "Le Misanthrope" and " Tartufe." Boileau (1636- 
1711), a noted French poet, was remarkable for the moral 
tone of his writings, viz., "Satires," "Epistles" and 
"Lutrin." Racine (1639-1699), the most celebrated of the 
French dramatists, wrote " Aiidromaque" Phedre" and 
" Iphigenie" Fenelon (1651-1715), a French author whose 
best known work is the romance of " Telemaqus." Cor- 
neille (1605-1684), born at Rouen, wrote the great tragedy of 
the "Cid," and "Horace" and " Oinna." 

Query.— Who were Vandyck, Rembrandt, Murillo, Rubena, 
Pascal, and Bossuet? 

33. Who were the literary representatives of 

Queen Anne's age ? 

Ans. — Pope, Addison, and Swift. Alexander Pope 
(1688-1744) wrote " The Rape of the Look," a translation of 
the Iliad and Odyssey, " Elegy on an Unfortunate Lady" 
" Epistle from Sappho to P/iaon" " Dunciad," " Ode on St. 
Cecilia's Day," (see Bryden), etc. 

Selections: — "To err is human; to forgive divine," 
(Essay on Criticism). "Vice is a monster of so frightful 
mien, etc." (Essay on Man). "I lisped in numbers, for the 
numbers came." 

Joseph Addison (1672-1719), wrote the " Tragedy of 
Cato," " Tatler," " Spcctaio-r," "Trawls in Italy" 



22 Dime Question Books. 

" The Campaign" and "Guardian" Jonathan Swift 
(1667-1745), is the author of " Gulliver's Travels," " TU 
Tale of a Tub" "Journal to Stella" and innumerable pam- 
phlets. 

Not®.— This was called the Augustan age of English litera- 
ture. The other writers of this period were William Collins, a fine 
lyric poet, author of " Ode to the Passions," " How Sleep the 
Brave "; Matthew Prior, who wrote *« Alma" " Solomon," "Coun- 
try Mouse and City Mouse"; John Gay, " Frivia, or the Art of 
Walking the Streets of London," "Three Hours after Marriage," 
and "Beggar's Opera"; Edward Young, " Love of Fame, the Uni- 
versal Passion," "Night Thoughts"; Sir Edward Steele, one of the 
writers for The Taller and The Spectator; Allan Ramsey, " Pas- 
tor Fido," "Galatea"; Lady Mary Montagu, " Letters "; Daniel 
Defoe, " Robinson Crusoe," " Adventures of Captain Jack," "Moll 
Flanders," etc; James Thomson, " Castle of Indolence " and the 
" Seasons"; Garth. Parnell, Doddridge, Tickell, etc. 

Query— Which preceded the other in point of time, Dryden 
or Pope? Name the leading work of each. Who were the contem- 
poraries of Shakespeare? Who is called the father of the modern 
novel? Ans, Defoe. What is the character of Addison's style? 
From what great writer is English literature generally supposed 
to date its origin? 

34. Who was Oliver Goldsmith (1728*- 
1774)? 

Anb.— He was an Irishman, full of oddities and eccentri- 
cities, and remarkable alike for his strength and his weak- 
ness. Johnson said of him that "he wrote like an angel, 
but talked like poor Poll." His principal poems are " The 
Traveller," and " Deserted Village." "The Vicar of Wake- 
field" (a novel), "She stoops to Conquer" (a, comedy), a 
" Life of Beau Wash," " Chinese Letters," " Good- Matured 
Man," and variotis " Hisiones " comprise the remainder of 
his works. 

♦His epitaph toy Dr. Johnson says Nov, 29th, 1781. Other ao- 
ounts state that he was born in 1729. 



Ltteratube. 23 

Selections:— 

"Then pilgrim turn, thy cares forego, 

All earth-born cares are wrong; 
Man wants "but little here below, 

Nor wants that little long." 

"Sweet Auburn! loveliest village of the plain, 

Where health and plenty cheer' d the labouring swain," etc. 

""When lovely woman stoops to folly, 
And finds too late that men betray," etc, 

35, Name other authors of the Johnsonian 
Age. 

Aug.— Thomas Gray (1716-1771), "Elegy Written in a 
Country Churchyard," Odes " On the Spring" "On the 
Death of a Favorite Gat" " On a Distant Prospect of Eton 
College," "The Bard," and (s To Adversity." 

Robert Burns (1759-1798), "Highland Mury," " Auld 
La \g Syne." " The Goiter's Saturday Night," " Tarn 
O'Skanier," " To a Mountain Daisy" " Bonny Doon," "Ye 
Banks and Braes" "Man icas Made to Mourn," "Scotch 
Drink," etc. 

Selections: — 

"Had we never loved sae kindly, 
Had we never loved sae blindly, 
Never met or never parted, 
We had ne'er been broken-hearted." 

"Fare thee weel, thou first and fairestl 
Fare thee weel. thou best and dearest," etc. 

" Oh wad some power the giflie gie us 
To see oursels as iihers see us ! " ^ 

William Cowper (1781-1800), "John Gilpin," "On Re- 
ceiving my Moilier's Picture, " ' ' The Castaway, " " Bymns, " 
and " The Task" (a long poem in six books). 

Samuel Johnson (1700-1784). who was at the head of 



24 Dime Question Books. 

English writers of this age. His principal poema are 
"London" "The Vanity of Human Wishes," and his trag- 
edy of '''Irene." In prose, he wrote " Rasselas" (a romance), 
" The Rambler " "Lives of the Poets," and "Dictionary of 
the English Language " His biography was written by 
James Boswell" (1740-1795), 

Edmund Burke (1730-1797), the great orator, is the 
author of " An Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful," " Re- 
flections on the French Revolution," etc. ("There is, how- 
ever, a limit at which forbearance ceases to be a virtue. "\ 

Laurence Sterne (1713 - 1768), an irreligious parson, 
author of " Tristam Shandy" and " Sentimental Journey." 

Note.— Additionally, were Samuel Richardson, "Pamela," 
" Clarissa," and " Sir diaries Grandison" ; Henry Fielding, " Jo- 
seph Andrews," " The Mfe of Jonathan Wild the Great," w Tom. 
Joms"~&n& Amelia"; Tobias George Smollett "Roderick Random," 
"Peregrine Pickle," "The Adventures of Ferdinand,Count Fathom" 
and a translation of "Don Quixote"; David Hume (171 1-177&), the in- 
fidel philosopher, author of a" Histoid of England" and a "Treatise 
on Human Nature"; Edward Gibbon (1737-1794), " Study of Litera- 
ture" and "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire"; 
Sif ; Philip Francis, supposed author of the unsolved political mys- 
tery, the " Letters of Junius " ; Eichard Brinsley Sheridan, (1751- 
1818) said by Byron to have made the best speech— that on the 
Begums op Oude— , written the two best comedies, the " Rivals " 
and the " School for Scandal "—, the best opera, the "Duenna" — 
and the best farce, the "Critic "; John Wolcot, David Garrick, 
Samuel Foote, Cumberland, Walpole, Paley, Eeid, ami Hannah 
More (" Coelebs in Search of a Wife.") 

Query— Can you regard Burns as an illustration of the adage, 
Poeta nascitur, nonfit (Poets are born, not made) ? Why ? From 
what author is it quoted ? What is meant by the statement, 
" Goldsmith was an intensely subjective poet " ? What is meant 
by the Shakespearian-Bacon controversy ? What extracts can you 
give from Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear, Merchant of Venice, and 
Richard III ? 

36. What were the literary impostures of the 
eighteenth century ? 



LlTERATUBB. 25 

Aks,— The poetical forgeries of Macpherson, Gkatfcer- 
fcon, and Ireland. 

James Macpherson (1738-1798) pretended to have ac- 
cumulated in his travels through the Highlands of Scot- 
land an immense mass of fragments of ancient poetry- 
composed in the Gaelic or Erse dialect common to that 
country and Ireland, which he published under the title of 
thei* reputed author, " Ossian" Thomas Chatterton 
0-752-1770), the "marvelous boy,'- deceived nearly all the 
scholars of his age by his imitations of Old English poetry, 
William Henry Ireland (1777-1885) indulged in Shakes- 
pearian forgeries, among which was a play entitled " Vorti- 
gern," in which John Reinble acted in 1795, 

Qwerfr.— Can you give the birth-place of Dryden ? of Shakes- 
peare ? of Milton ? of Chaucer ? of Sterne ? of Cowper ? 

By what authors were these selections written ?— 

"Man's inhumanity to man makes countless thousands moura." 

" O, consistency, thou art a jewel! " 

H The only amaranthine flower on earth is virtue." 

" Fools rush in where angels fear to tread." 

"All is not gold that glitters." Ans. " All thai glistens is not 

gold,'* Shakespeare; 

"But all things lohieh that shineth as the gold, 
Ne is no gold, as I have heard it told," Chaucer; 

24 Yet gold all is not thai doth golden seem," Spenser; " All, as they 
say, that gUtUrs is not gold," Dryden ; and by Gray, Middleton, and 
others. 

37. What was the Age of Romantic Poetry ? 

Ans.— This name is frequently applied to the Age of 
Scott. The authors of this age were George Gordon Noel 
Byron (1788-1824), who wrote M Child* Harold," " The 
Dream," "The Prisoner of ChiUon," " Mazejya," "TU 



26 Dime Question Books. 

Bride of Abydos," "The Giaour," "Cain," "Manfred,* 
and "Don Juan.'" 

Extract from " Maseppa": — 

"For time at last set all thiBgs even? 
And if we do but watch the hour, 
There never yet was human power 
That could evade, if unforgiven, 
The patient search and vigil long, 
Of him who treasures up a wrong." 

Thomas Campbell (1777-1844), "Gertrude of Wyoming," 
" Hohenlinden," " LochieVs Warning," "O'Connor's Child." 

Extract from "Pleasures of Hope " : — 

"' Tis distance lends enchantment to the view, 
And robes the mountain in its azure hue." 

John Keats (1795-1821), " Endymion," " T lie Eve of Si. 
Agnes" "Hyperion," etc. 

38. Who were the " Lake Poets " ? 

Ans. — "Lake Poets" is a nickname given by the Brit- 
ish "to a certain brotherhood of poets, who haunted for 
some years about the lakes of Cumberland," and who were 
erroneously thought to have united to some settled theory 
of composition and style, "Wm. Wordsworth (1770-1850), 
who wrote the "Excursion" the "Prelude" and several 
other poems noted for beautiful references to natural 
scenery and nature generally; Samuel Taylor Coleridge 
(1772-1834), the philosophic poet and critic, whose life was 
made miserable by the use of opium, author of "Lectures 
on Shakespeare ," " Chrisiahel" and " Rime of tlie Ancient 
Mariner"; and Robert Southey (1774-1843), writer of 
" Thaldba" "Joan of Arc," " The Curse of Kehama" etc., 
were regarded as the chief representatives of this so called 
school ; but Lamb, Lloyd, and Wilson were also included 
under the same name. 

Note,— The other writers of this age were Tom Moore, "Lalla 



Literature. 27 

Bookh," " Loves of the Angels,'" "Anacreon," "Irish Melodies," 
" Veiled Prophet," " The Last Rose of Summer," etc. ; Percy Bysslie 
Shelley, "Queen Mab," "Prometheus Unbound," " Cenci," 
"Adcnais," " Rosalind and Helen," "The Skylark," etc.; Leigh 
Hunt, "Story of Rimini," "Captain Sword and Captain Pen," "A 
Legend of Florence"; Walter Savage Landor, "Conversations." 
'* The Hellenics," "The Last Fruit of an Old Tree "; Thomas Hood, 
"The Bridge of Sighs," "Eugene Aram," "Song of the Shirt"; 
Charles Lamb, "Essays of Elia," "Farewell to Tobacco," "The 
Child Angel," "Rosamond Gray"; Thomas De Quineey, "Confes- 
sions of an English Opium Eater," "Flight of the Kalmuck Tar- 
tars"; Mrs. Hemans, "Lays, Lyrics, etc.," " The Graves of a 
Household"; Bryan Waller Proctor (Barry Cornwall), "Miran- 
dola," "English Songs," etc.; and Samuel Rogers, L. E. Landon. 
Joanna Baillie, Pollok, Hallam, Arnold, Marryatt, Miss Mitford. 
Countess D'Arhlay, Stewart, Lord Brougham, Dr. Chalmers, etc. 

Query.— What are the principal works of Sir Walter Scott ? 
Who wrote "Come, ye Disconsolate"? Who is the author of 
" Prom Greenland's Icy Mountains " ? With whom did English 
prose begin? Ans. "Venerable Bede." Who was the father of 
English printing ? Who created the historical novel? Ans. Sir 
Walter Scott. Who was the "Wizard of the North "? Why? 
How long was Gray writing his "Elegy " ? 

Note.— The Sorrows of Genius. Horner was a beggar; 
Plautus turned a mill; Terras was a slave; Paul Borghese had 
fourteen trades, and yet starved with them all; Tasso was often 
distressed for five shillings ; Bentivoglio was refused admittance 
into an hospital he had himself founded; Cervantes died of hunger; 
the celebrated writer of the "Lusiod" ended his days, it is said, in 
an almshouse; Vagelasleft his body to the surgeons to pay his 
debts, as far as the money would go ; Bacon lived a life of distress ; 
Sir Walter Raleigh died on the scaffold; Milton sold his copyright 
of "Paradise Lost" for fifteen pounds at three payments, and 
finished his life in obscurity; Dryden lived in poverty and distress; 
Otway died in hunger and neglect; Lee died in the street; Steele 
lived all his days fighting the sheriff's ofScers; Goldsmith's "Vicar 
of Wakefield v was sold for a trifle to save him from the grip of the 
law; Fielding lies in the burying-ground of the English factory at 
Lisbon, without a stone to mark the spot; Savage died in prison at 
Bristol, where he was confined for the debt of eight pounds ; Butler 
lived a life of great poverty, and died poor; Chatterton, th© 
child of genius and misfortunes, destroyed himself. 



28 Dime Question Books. 

39. Who wrote "William Tell"? 

Ans.— James Sheridan Knowles (1784-1862) wrote the 
play of "William Tell "in English, and the greatest dra- 
matic work of Schiller (1759-1805) was "WilMm Tell," 
of course in the German language, Knowles was an Irish- 
man famous as an actor, elocutionist, and dramatic author 
of such plays as "Virginius" aud "William Tell.' 1 He 
became a Baptist minister in his old age, wrote some con- 
troversial works, and died at Torquay. Schiller was, 
next to Goethe, the greatest German poet, and the author 
of "Wallenstein," the "Bobbers," etc, 

40. Who were the French authors of the 
eighteenth century ? 

Ans.— Montesquieu (1689-1755), "Lettres Persannes" 
"Esprit ties Lois"; Voltaire (1694-1778), "Henriade* "Age 
of L&uis XIV.," "History of Charles XII."; Buff on (1707- 
1788), "Hisioire NaiurelU" '; and Rousseau (1712-1778) who 
was obliged to ieave France on the publication of his 
<f Contrat Social." 

Query.— Who were Mozart, Haydn, Canova, Jaequard, Lessing, 
Handel, Reynolds, West, and Gainsborough? Who was "KU 
North"? 

41. Who are the poets of the Victorian Age ? 

Ans. — Alfred Tennyson, " The Princess" "Locksley 
Ball," "The May Queen," "Maud," "Enoch Arden," 
il Idylsof the King" ; Robert Browning, "My Lost Duchess" 
"How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix," "A 
Blot on the Scutcheon," "The Ring and the Book"; Eliza- 
beth Barrett Browning, "Aurora. Leigh," "Casa Guidi 
Windows, "Lady Geraldine's Courtship," "He Giveth His 



Liteeathbk 29 

Beloved Sleep" ; Jean Xngelow, "Songs/ 1 "High Tide on the 
Coast of Lincolnshire" " Off the SJcelh'gs"; Algernon Charles 
Swinburne,, " Lavs Veneris" "Atalania in Calydon," 
"BotftweU"; Gerrald Massey, "The Babe Chrislabel," "The 
Wee White Rose"; Lord Lytton ("Owen Meredith")* 
"Lucille," "Fables in Verse"; and Coventry Patmore, 
Mrs. Norton, Mackay, etc. 

Query.— Who is the " golden-tressed Adelaide " ? Where Is 
found 

,! 'Tis better to have loved and lost 
Than never to have loved at all " ? 

Who is the author of " Frankenstein" ? Who are the authors of 
" Tommy 's Dead" and "Legends of Inv&rlmrn" 9 What are the 
five greatest epics known to the world? Ans. Homer's "lliad, ,} 
Virgil's "Aeneid," Dante's "Divine Comedy," Tasso's "Jerusalem 
Delivered," and Milton's "Paradise Lost" Is "Pilgrim's Progress" 
an epic, lyric, novel, or allegory? 

Note.— This age, one of great productiveness In literature, is 
very prolific in prose writers. Among "the immortal names that 
were not horn to die" are: Thomas Babington Macaulay, "Lays 
of Ancient Rome," "Horatius at the Bridge," "History of Eng- 
land" ; Charles Dickens, " Pickwick," "Martin Chuzzleutit," 
"Bleak House," "Our Mutual Friend," "David, Copperfield" ; 
William Makepeace Thackeray, " Vanity Fair," " The Vir- 
ginians," "Pendennis," "The English Humorists" ; Sir Edward 
Bulwer - Lytton, " Rienzi," "The Caxtons," " Pelham," "The 
Last Days of Pompeii," "Richelieu," and "Lady of Lyons"; 
George Elliot (Mrs. Lewes), "Romola," "The Mill on the Floss," 
"Adam Bede," "Middlemarch"; Charles Darwin, "The Origin of 
Specks," "The Descent of M an "; Thomas Carlyle, "Sartor 
Resartus" "Hero Worship," "Life of Frederick the Great"; John 
Euskin, "Modem Painters," "Seven Lamps," "Stones of Venice"; 
Charles Reade, "Peg Woffington," "Griffith Gaunt," "Never too 
Late to Mend" ; Canon Kingsley, "Alton Locke," "Hyvatia" ; 
Charles Lever, "Charles O'Mailey," "Harry Lorrequer"; Samuel 
Lover, "Rory O'More," "Molly Baun"; Samuel Warren, "Ten 
Thousand a Tear"; Charlotte Bronte (Currer Bell), "Jam Eyre," 
"Shirley," "Villette "; Wilkie Collins, "Armadale," " Th4 Moon* 



30 Dime Question Books. 

itone," " Woman in White" "No Name »»; Dinah Muloch Craik, 
:( John Halifax, Gentleman "; Thomas Hughes, "School Days at 
Rugby"! M. E. Braddon; Edmund Yates; B. L. Farjeon ; Agnes 
Strickland; Benjamin D'Israeli, "Vivian Grey," "The Young 
Duke" "Lothair," "Endymion"; Froude, the historian; Anthony 
Trollope ; Grote, author of "History of Greece"; Alison; George 
Macdonald; Mrs. Wood; John Stuart Mill; Hugh Miller; Dean 
(B. C.) Trench; Max Muller; and the scientists— Huxley, Tyndall, 
and Speucer, etc., etc. 



According to Bartlett's "Familiar Quotations," the 
authors most frequently quoted from are— the order indi- 
cating their popularity — Shakespeare, Milton, Pope, Byron, 
Wordsworth, Goldsmith, Gray, Tennyson, Moore, Scott, 
Dryden, and Butler's "Rudibras." Of course the Bible is 
by far the most popular source of quotations, and Shake- 
speare stands next. But the writer whose works are read 
the least of the names given above is Alexander Pope. 
Yet he is the author who furnishes next to Shakespeare 
and Milton the largest number of popular quotations. The 
following list wilt give some idea of his popularity: 

11 Shoot folly as it flies, 

And catch the manners living as they rise." 

"Lo, the poor Indian." "All are but parts of one stu- 
pendous whole." "Whatever is, is right." "The proper 
study of mankind is man." "He can't be wrong whose 
life is in the right." "Order is Heaven's first law." 
" Pleas'd with a rattle, tickled with a straw." "Act well 
your part— there all the honor lies." " An honest man's 
the noblest work of God." " Look through nature up to 
nature's God." "From grave to gay, from lively to 
severe." "Guide, philosopher and friend." "Just as 
the twig is bent the tree's inclined. " "Who shall 
decide when doctors disagree?" "Damn with faint 



Literature. 31 

praise.'' "The feast of reason and (he flow of souL M 

" Do good by stealth, and blush to find it fame*** 

The so-called prophecy of Mother SAipton was as follows; 

" Carriages without horses shall go, 

And accidents fill the world with woe. 

Around the world thoughts shall fly, 

In the twinkling of an eye. 

Wat Q r shall yet more wonders do, 

Very strange, yet shall be true. 

The world upside down shall he, 

And coin be found at roots of tree, 

Through hills men shall ride, 

And no horse or ass shall be at his side. 

On ier water men shall walk, 

Shall ride, shall sleep, shall talk. 

In the air men shall be seen 

In wiiite, in black, in green. 

Iron in the water shall float 

As easy as an wooden boat. 

Gold shall be found, and found 

In a land that's not now known, 

Fire and water shall wonders do, 

England at last shall admit a Jew. 

The world to an end shall come 

In eighteen hundred and eighty-one. 

It is claimed that this was written and published first 
in 1488 and republished in 1641, and that it is the more 
wonderful as all the predictions, with the exception of the 
last, have been verified. Whether such a woman ever 
lived, is not known; bub the prophecy is a clever hoax, 
and is the product of the brain of Charles Hindley, of 
Brighton, England, who about the year 1862 published 
what pretended to be a reissue of an old work containing, 
among other articles by " Mother Shipton," this wonderful 
document. 

42. What are the three periods of American 
literature ? 



32 Dime Question Books. 

Am— I. The Colonial Age, 1640-1760; II. The Revo- 
lutionary Age, 1760-1880; III. The National Age, 1830- 



Note,— The writers of the Colonial Age were principally theo- 
logians. Its chief literary representatives are Cotton Mather— 
"Magnolia Chri&ti Americana" and "Memorable Providences 
"Relating to Witchcraft "— and Jonathan Edwards, whose great 
work was "An Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will." 

43. Who are the poets of the Revolutionary 
Age? 

James Rodman Drake, "The American Flag" and "The 
Culprit Fay"; Fitz-Greene Halleck, ''Marco Bozzaris"; 
Francis Scott Key, "Star Spangled Banner" ; Judge 
Joseph Hopidnson, "Hail Columbia," and Judge Francis 
Hopkinaon, his father, who wrote " The Battle of the Kegs"; 
Clement C. Moore, "A Visit from St. Nicholas" ("'Twas 
the night before Christmas"); Samuel Woodworth, " Ths 
Old Oamn Bucket "; and a few minor poets. 

Noti\— The prose writers of this age generally furnish us the 
"solid ^ratter" to be found in the works of Hamilton, John 
Adams, Madison, Jefferson, Kent, Story, Wirt, D wight, Audobon, 

Chamiing.Witherspoon, Wilson, and the "Poor Richard's Maxims" 
of Franklin. 

44. "Who represent the " Golden Age " of 
American literature ? 

Aha.— William Cullen Bryant, " Thanatopsis," "Song 
of the Stars"; Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, "Evangel- 
ine" "Tlie Bridge," "Outre Mer" "Kavanagh," "Hype- 
rion"; John Greenleaf Whittier, " Maud Muller," " Snow- 
jBoutuZ," "Barbara FrietcJiie," "A Tent on the Beach**; 
Jjynes Russell Lewsll, " The Biglow Papers," "True, Noble- 



LlTERATUBE. 33 

ness," "First Snowfall"; Oliver Wendell Holmes, ,l Auto- 
crat of the Breakfast Table," " One Ross Shap," "Old 
Ironsides "; Edgar Allen Poe, " The Raven," " The Bells"; 
John Godfrey Saxe, "Briefless Barrister" "Proud Miss 
MacBride"; Thomas Buchanan Read, "Sheridan's Bide" 
"Drifting"; Bayard Taylor, "Story of Kennett" "Masque 
oftlie Gods," "Song of the Camp"; Alice and Phoebe Cary, 
" Clover jwa&,". "Married, not Mated," "The Poei- to the 
Painter"; Thomas Bailey .Aldrich, "The Face Against the 
Pane" u 3abie Bell"; Edmund Clarence Stedman, "John 
Brown of OssawaiGmie" ; J. G. Holland, " Bitter- Sweet," 
"Kathrina," "Timotlvy Titcomb's Letters," "SevencaJcs" ; 
Francis Bret Harte, "Heathen Chinee," "A Newport 
Romance"; Joaquin Miller, " Songs of the Sierras," "Burns 
and Byron "; John Howard Payne, "Home Sweet Home "; 
N. P. Willis, "People I have Mel"; Nathaniel Hawthorne, 
" Marble Faun," "Twice-Told Tales," "The Scarlet Letter"; 
Harriet Beecher Stowe, "Uncle Tom's Cabin" ; Edward 
Eggleston, "Hoosier Schoolmaster"; Samuel L. Clemens, 
"Innocents Abroad," " Gilded Age"; and Irving, Prescott, 
Bancroft, Sprague, Stoddard, Whitman, Pierpont, Dana, 
Percival, Boker, Morris, Cooper, Everett, Webster, Sum- 
ner, Agassiz, Emerson, White, Parker, Henry Ward 
Beecher, Parton, Lossing, Simms, Cooke, Arthur, Trow- 
bridge, Mrs, Moulton, Miss Alcott, Mrs. Evans-Wilson, 
Hale, Mitchell, Mann, "Fanny Fern," etc., etc. 



Gems. 

" Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man 
and writing an exact man. "—Bacon. 

"He* left a name at which the world grew pale, 
To point a moral or adorn a tale."— Db,, Johnson. 

♦Referring to Charles XII, of Sweden. 



84 Dimk Qurstion Books. 

"A handful of red sand, from the hot clime 

Of Arab deserts brought, 
Within this glass becomes the spy of time, 
j The minister of thought ."—Longfellow. 

"Next to the originator of a good sentence is the first 
quoter of it."— Emerson, 

" Tell me tales of thy first love- 
April hopes, the fools of chance- 
Till the graves begin to move, 
And the dead begin to dance."— Tennyson. 

"Hefe's a sigh to those that love me, 

And a smile to those that hate, 
And whatever sky's above me, 

Here's a heart for any fate." — Byron. 

" Drink to mc only with thy eyes, 

And I will pledge with mine; 
Or leave but a kiss in the cup, 

And I'll not ask for wine."— Ben Jonson. 

"Dream, dream, feeart of my own love! 
Sweet is the wind from the odorous South — 

Sweet is the island we sail to alone, love- 
Sweet is a kiss from thy ruddy young mouth." 

—Mortimer Collins. 

From "Lucille": 

"He who seeks one thing in life and but one, 
May hope to achieve it before life be done. 
But he who seeks all things wherever he goes, 
Only reaps from the hopes which around him he sows 
A harvest of barren regrets. "—Lord Lytton. 



Food for Thought. 

Who was Hipparchus? What does the phrase " to pass 
the Rubicon" signify? Who is th3 most voluminous 
English poet? Who were the Poets Laureate? Who 
wrote Peter Bell? What was George Ouikshank? What 
English poet achieved dUtinotwa despite the loss, of eye- 



LlTEBATtJRE. 85 

eight? Who is the author of the Theory of Evolution, 
epitomized in the familiar expression, "the survival of the 
fittest"? What were the works of Goethe, Beranger, 
Richter, Guizot, Hugo, Verne, Thiers, Pushkin, and 
Dumas? Have you read Burton's "Anatomy of Melan- 
choly "? Who wrote " The Arcadia "? Who is the author 
of "Mother Goose "? What is Csesar's "Be Bello Gallico "? 
Who was G. P. R. James? What Pope published Paga- 
ninfo version of the Bible? Who was Confucius? What 
plays of Shakespeare are drawn from English history, and 
over what period do they extend? What do we mean by 
the classic productions of an age? Who are the leading 
characters in "Romeo and Juliet"? Who wrote "Phor- 
mio," "Pro Murena," "Lycidas," "Cato," "Much Ado 
About Nothing," "Village Blacksmith," "Vicar of Wake- 
field," "Toilers of the Sea," "Heathen Chinee," "Gulli- 
ver's Travels," "Marco Bozzaris," "Rasselas," "Hia- 
watha," "Fable of the Critics," "Excursion," "Jane 
Eyre," "Moonstone," "The Task," and "Faerie Qaeen"f 




GENERAL HISTORY, 



GENERAL HISTORY. 



1, What is History ? 

Ans,— The word History is of Greek origin, signifying 
in that language a learning or knowing by inquiry, and in 
English a record of past events, or it may be defined in a 
general way as the record of the life of mankind. In a 
more special view, it is the narrative of the rise and pro- 
gress of those famous peoples whose doings constitute the 
history of civilization. 

Query.— What is Biography;? What is Autobiography ? What 
Is political history ? What is meant by the Philosophy of History ? 

Note.— The branches of study necessary to a proper under- 
standing of this subject are Ethnology, Archaeology, Philology, 
Geology and Physical Geography, These researches belong prop- 
erly to Anthropology, which deals with man in natural history 
rather than to history proper, 

2, What are the divisions of history ? 

Asa.— Ancient, extending from the earliest times to the 
fall of the Western Roman Empire, 476 A. D., and mod- 
ern, beginning with the downfall of Rome, and extending 
to the present time. 

Noto.— Some historians make a triple division of Ancient, 
Mediseval and Modern, and the interval, from the fifth to the fif- 
teenth century, is regarded as the period of Mediaeval history, or 
the history of the Middle Ages. The subdivisions are : (1) the his- 
tory of the group of ancient Oriental Nations, the Egyptians, the 



40 Dime Question Books, 

Assyro-Babylonians, the Hebrews, the Phceneeians, the Hindoos 
and the Persians; l*) the history of Greece; (3) the history of 
Eorae; (4) the history of the Middle Ages; (5) the history of the 
modern European states and nations, Including that of the United 
States and America In general. 

3. What country has the oldest authentic his- 
tory ? 

Ans.— Egypt, "the Gift of the Nile," beginning 'with 
the accession of Menes, placed by some scholars (as Bun- 
sen) at 3906; others bring it down as late as 2700. 

4. What are the three periods of Egyptian 
history ? 

Ans. —The First (or period of the old empire), from 
2700 B. C, to 2080; the Second (or the era covered by the 
rule of the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings,) from 2080 to 1527; 
the Third (or period of the new empire, down to the de- 
struction of Egyptian independence by the Persians), from 
1527 to 525. 

Note.— According to Manetho, the native historian, twenty- 
six dynasties of kings ruled the country during these three peri- 
ods. The Israelites were in Egypt during the reign of the Hyksos. 
It is known that Abraham visited Egypt in the 20th century B. C. 
Though fchere is a difference of opinion as to the time of the Exo- 
dus, it is believed to have taken place 1320 B. O., during the reign 
of Menetha, the fourth king of the nineteenth dynasty,— the Phar- 
aoh whose "heart was hardened," and who was drowned in the 
Red Sea. 

Query.— Who is called the Father of History? What are hiero- 
glyphics? Who was Suphis or Cheops? What are annals, chroni- 
cles and memoirs? What- is the Sphynx? For what purpose were 
the Pyramids built? Who was Sesostris? 

5. What were the Six Great Monarchies o£ 



General History* 41 

the Ancient World? Give a brief history of 
each. 

Ans.— -Babylonia, Assyria, Chaldea, Media, Persia, and 
Parthia. Tiie first (called in the Bible the "Plains of 
Shinar ") and its chief city were founded by Nirnrod about 
2247 B. D. A century later the city of Nineveh, the capi- 
tal of Assyria, was founded by Minus, who conquered the 
Babylonians. The history of this country is divided into 
two periods, and during the second was the splendid reign 
of Sennacherib (705-681), who made extensive conquests 
and was the builder of magnificent structures at Nineveh. 
The Assyrian empire ended with the fall of Sardanapalus, 
who was overcome by the Medes in 840 B. 0= Chaldea 
was the name of the southwest portion of ancient Babylo- 
nia, bordering on Arabia. It was the ancestral home of the 
patriarch Abraham. When Alexander the Great took pos- 
session of Babylon , 831 B, 0., he found a series of astro- 
nomical observations taken by the Ohaldeans for an un- 
broken period of 1903 years. This people became masters 
of Babylon about 747 B.C. Their fall occurred when "the 
golden city " was destroyed by the "Medes under Gyrus, 538 
B. C. Media was a province of Assyria which revolted 
and became independent about 875 B, O. Its separate ex- 
istence terminated when it was united to Persia by Cyrus. 
Persia, the*"Elam"of the Bible, was subdued by the As- 
syrians in the ninth century before Christ. Cyrus became 
their ruler in 588 B.C., and Alexander the Great, aiter 
defeating the Persians in several battles, made it a Grecian 
monarchy 331 B. C. Parthia became subjected to the Per- 
sians. In the year 53 B. C. , Orassus, at the head of a 
Roman army, invaded the country and was defeated. But 
as a warlike people the Parthian? disapp *. r t froi i histc 
ry A, D.. S28. 



42 Dime Question Books. 

Query.— Who were the builders of the Tower of Babel? What 
city was traversed diagonally by the Euphrates? What were the 
seven wonders of the world? What four cities were established 
by Ninarod? Give an account of the Assyrian Empire, and of the 
siege and capture of its chief city. 

6. What is the history of the Hebrews? 

Ans.— The most complete history of a people of the 
Semitic race is that of the Hebrews, contained in the Bible, 
generally called sacred history. Jewish national history 
begins with the Exodus, and, from that event to the absorp- 
tion of Judea in the Roman empire, 63 B. C, it is divided 
into four periods. Their kingdom reached its zenith under 
Solomon, 1015-975 B. G. Under his successor, Rheho- 
boam, ten of the twelve tribes revolted and formed the 
Kingdom of Israel, which was conquered by Assyria in 
721 B, 0. Jerusalem, the capital of the Kingdom of Judah 
(two tribes), was captured by Nebuchadnezzar, 586 B. C. , 
and the people were carried into captivity to Babylon for 
?0 years. The siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus 
took place in the year 70 A. D. 

Notk.— The two great races that appeared "on the vast table- 
lands of Asia at a remote period in the past, were the Aryan and 
Semitic. The Aryan race receives its name from a Sanskrit word 
meaning l> noble," and the Semitic is named for Shem, the son of 
Noah. These two great races have always been antagonistic to 
each other, and in the contests the Aryans have almost invariably 
triumphed. 

7. Who were the Phoenicians ? 

Ans.— A Semitic race who were the earliest commercial 
and colonizing people on the shores of the Mediterranean. 
It is believed they were emigrants from Chaldea. They 
founded the colony of Carthage and, pushing their way 
beyond what the Greeks called the "Pillars of Hercules H 



General History. 43 

(Strait of Gibraltar), built the city of Gades (Cadiz), and 
visited the southern ports of the British Islands. Their 
chief cities were Tyre and Sidon. The former was cap- 
tured 585 B. 0., by Nebuchadnezzar, after a siege of 13 
years, and again by Alexander the Great, 332 B. C, when 
8,000 Tyrians ware massacred, and 30,000 sold into slav- 
ery. 

8. Give an account of the Persians and Hin- 
doos. 

Ans.— -They are the two Asiatic representatives of the 
great Aryan race, The Persians, who were emigrants into 
Persia, were originally subject to the Medes. After Cyrus 
had thrown off the Median yoke, the two peoples became 
united, under the empire of the Medes and Persians. As 
before stated, Cyrus captured Babylon, and his son Cam- 
byses, a cruel, bloodthirsty tyrant, conquered Egypt, 525 
B. C. Darius I. was the greatest of the Persian monarchs. 
His son Xerxes, invading Greece, was ignominiously 
defeated, The empire was finally overthrown by Alexan- 
der the Great at the battle of Arbela> Oct. 1st, 431 B. C. 
The Hindos, leaving their native seat, first settled in the 
northwestern part of India about the year 3000 B. C. The 
first historical notice that we have of India in relation with 
Europe is by the invasion of Alexander the Great, 326 B. C. 
Its condition then corresponds almost exactly with what 
may be seen at the present day. 

Query.— From what was the dye of the celebrated Tyrian par- 
pie made? What are the four cosies of the Hindoos? What is the 
Shah Namehf Who was Zoroaster ? What was Maglanism ? 
What is Buddhism ? 

9. When was the beginning of Grecian his- 
tory? 



44 Dime Question Books. 

Ans. — Its earliest history is involved in mystery of 
which the myth-makers have taken the fullest advantage, 
giving the world a system of mythology that has always 
been a subject of study as well as a source whence the 
pcets of subsequent ages have drawn many of their choic- 
est embellishments; but its history proper begins with the 
first celebration of the Olympian games, 776 B. C. 

Note.— The Heroic Age, so called from the exploits of heroes 
which are related in the myths, legends and poems of Homer, ex- 
tended from the earliest times to about 1100 B. C. From the Iliad 
we derive our record of the Trojan War, which occurred 1184 B. 0. 
Venus promised Paris, the son of Priam.king of Troy, and Hecuba, 
that he should have to wife the handsomest woman in the world, 
Helen, wife of Meneiaus, king of Sparta. In the absence of her 
husband, Paris carried Helen to his home in Troy, and to obtain 
her, the princes of Greece, under command of Agamemnon, a 
brother of the injured husband, undertook an expedition that 
resulted in the restoration of Helen and the destruction of Troy 
after a siege of ten years. 

10. What are the three periods of Grecian 

history ? 

Ans.— From the Dorian migration to the beginning of 
the Persian Wars (1100-500 B. C.) 3. From the beginning 
of the Persian Wars to the subjugation of Greece by Philip 
of Macedon (500-338 B. C). 3. From the subjugation of 
Greece by Philip to the Roman conquest (338-146 B. C,). 

Note.— The two leading races were the Ionians and the Dori- 
ans. The Greeks always called their country Bellas and them- 
selves Hellenes. The four principal cities, Athens, Sparta, Cor- 
inth and Thebes, are said to have been founded about 1500 B. O. 

11. Give an account of Sparta. 

Ans.— She was the first to rise to prominence, and the 
ascendancy which she acquired over the other states of 



General History. 4fr 

the Peloponnesus was mainly owing to her peculiar insti- 
tutions founded by Lyeurgus about 850 B. C. His leading 
idea was the elevation of the state above the individual, and 
he divided the people into three classes, the Spartans, the 
Laconians, and the Helots, or serfs. After the laws of 
Lyeurgus had been confirmed by the oracle at Delphi, he 
caused the Spartans to bind themselves by an oath never to 
change them until his return from a journey he proposed 
to make, Upon this he went away and was never again 
heard of. 

12. What eity was the great rival of Sparta ? 

Ans.— Athens, Until the death of Codrus, 1068 B. C, 
it was governed by kings ; afterward by nine elected offi- 
cers, who were called Archons, These, in conjunction 
with the nobles, constituted the supreme court of the 
Areopagus, established by Solon 594 B. C. 

Note.— The wise laws of Solon aimed at the gradual erection 
of a democracy, and Athens was the first real republic, but they 
were frustrated for a time by the tyrant Pisistratus and his two 
sons, Hippias and Hipparchus. Hippias, usurping the govern- 
ment of Athens, B. C*. 560, enjoyed a splendid reign of 33 years, 
after which Hipparchas was slain in a popular tumult, and his 
brother was expelled from Athens 510 B. C. 

Query.— What is meant by Spartan bravery ? What was the 
Code of Di^aco ? Who were the " Seven Wise Men"? What is 
ostracism ? 

13. What were the Grecian wars ? 

Ans. — Sparta was engaged three times in war with her 
neighbors in Messenia, 743 to 723, 685 to 668, and 464 to 
455, and the Persian War, which grew out of trouble 
between the Greek colonies on the Asiatic coast and Per- 
sia, commenced about 495 B. C. by the Ionian revolt. This 



46 Dime Question Books. 

was easily cruslied by Darius, and, the first expedition 
sent to conquer Greece, in 492 B. C, having proved abor- 
tive, he organized an extensive army and landed on the 
plains of Marathon in the year 490 B, C. The one hundred 
thousand invaders were met by an Athenian army of ten 
thousand men under command of ten generals, among 
whom were Miltiades, Themistocles and Aristides, and 
were totally defeated. Only 193 Greeks fell, 

14:. When was the second invasion \ 

Asrs. — In the year 485 B. C. A mighty host, variously 
estimated, (Herodotus says it consisted of 2,600,000 men), 
under Xerxes, met the Spartans and Athenians at the Pass 
of Thermopyl®. Leonidas with 300 Spartans and 700 Thes- 
pians, after a traitor had betrayed to the Persians a pas- 
sage over the mountains, repulsed two chosen bodies of 
troops, but being attacked in front and rear they all per- 
ished, fighting desperately. The Spartans abandoned the 
Athenians and commenced fortifying the Isthmus of Oor> 
inth. Athens was burned by the Persians. 

15. Give an account of the battle of Salamis. 

Ans. —Themistocles, availing himself of the fleet that 
his foresight had provided, gained so complete a victory 
that Xerxes in despair commenced a hasty retreat, leaving, 
however, an army of 800,000 men, which attacked the peo- 
ple of Attica in the spring of 479 B. C. The Greeks rallied 
under Pausanias and Aristides, and defeated the enemy 
with tremendons slaughter at Platcea. On the same day, 
the Persian fleet was nearly wholly destroyed at MycdU. 
For the succeeding ten years there were conflicts between 
the Greeks and Persians, but in 469 B. O. a peace was con- 
cluded which ended the Persian rule. 



General History, 47 

Query.— What became of Themistocles, Miltiades and Pausan- 
ias? When was the "Golden Age of Pericles "? What is the Par- 
thenon? Who were the writers of comedy and tragedy? By whom 
was oratory practised? Who was Pheidippides? Ans.— The Athe- 
nian runner boy who ran two days, two nights, " over the hills, 
under the dales, down pits and up peaks," from Athens to Sparta, 
to demand aid for life city against the Persian. As reward,on the 
Marathon day he was allowed to run again, with the tidings, "Re- 
joice, we conquer! " but the "joy in his blood bursting his heart, 
he died," his country freed. 

16. When was the Peloponnesiaii War? 

Ans. The prosperity of Athens caused jealousy on the 
part of the Spartans, and in 430 B. C. the Peloponnesiaii 
states formed an alliance to oppose the Athenians and their 
allies. The conflict was maintained with varying fortunes 
until 404 B. C, when the power of Athens had vanished, 
and it was placed under the government of the "Thirty 
Tyrants," illustrious, aristocratic Athenians, who were the 
allies of Sparta. 

Note.— Xenophon's Anabasis gives an account of the retreat 
of the 10,000 Greeks (who went to assist the revolt of Cyrus, the 
younger son of Artaxerxes, king of Persia,) after the defeat ol 
Cyrus at Cunaxa, and the killing of the Greek generals who had 
been invited to a cowicil. 

17. Who was Epauiinondas ? 

Ans.— The general of Thebes who defeated the Spartans 
at Leuctra 871 B. C, by which Thebes became the leading 
state, 

18. When was the Macedonian Conquest ? 

In the year 838 B. C., the Great Philip, king of Mace- 
Son, in spite of the efiorts- of Demosthenes and the- valor 



48 Dime Question Books. 

of the Thebans, gained the battle of Chcermea, the Athe- 
nians and their allies were defeated, and Greece was never 
again free. 

Query.— When was the Corinthian War? What was the 
" Aclusan League "t Name the battles of Alexander the Great. 
Who were Archimedes and Hippocrates ? What are Philippics f 

19. Who was the "Mistress of the World"? 

Am— Rome. Her history extends from the foundation 
of the city by Romulus, 753 B. C, to its destruction by the 
Vandals, A.D, 455. The three periods of her history are: 1, 
The mythical and traditional age of the Kings, 753-510 B. C. ; 
3, The heroic age of the Republic, 510-27 B. C; and, 3, The 
Golden Age of the Emperors, 27 B.C. -455 A. D. The Gauls 
sacked the city 389 B, C, destroying all the records, and 
the trustworthy history of Rome really begins no earlier 
than 281 B. C. 

Note.— The legends of the age of seven kings tell us of the 
wonderful preservation of Komulus and Semus; the rape of the 
Sabine women; the wise reign of Numa Pompilius, and his con- 
ferences with the nymph Egeria; the wars of Tullus Hostilius and 
Ancus Martius; the combat between the Horatii and the Curatii; 
while the early traditions tell us how Tarquinius Priscus founded 
the Capitol, and recount the murder of Tarquin and his successor, 
Servius Tullius, and the final banishment of the last of the kings, 
Tarquinius Superbus, The people were at first divided into patri- 
cians and plebeians. After the expulsion of the Tarquins, the 
supreme authority was placed in the hands of two officers, called 
at first proelors, afterward consuls. The stern Lucius Junius Bru- 
tus and Tarquinius Collatinus were the first to hold this office. 

Query.— Have you read Macaulay's " Lays " ? Who was Cin- 
clnnatu3 ? Who were the decemviri ? 

20. What is the date of the Punic Wars ? 
Am— After becoming mistress of all Italy, by contests 



GrENEBAL HlSTOKY. 49 

with the Samnites and other peoples, Home began to ex- 
tend her conquests outside of her dominions. The Romans 
and Carthaginians had become jealous of each other, and 
the pretext for a "war was found when the inhabitants of 
Sicily invoked the help of Rome against Carthage. The 
first Punic war, beginning 265 B, C, in which the Roman 
General Regulus was defeated, made a prisoner, and it is 
said was put to death with horrible tortures, resulted in 
the confirmation of the claims of Rome upon Sicily 242 
B. C, and in the payment of the expenses of the war by 
Carthage, amounting to $2,500,000. Hannibal, the Car- 
thaginian general, reopened hostilities by encamping in 
Italy in 218 B. C. Superseded by Paulus, the battle of 
Cannae was fought, in which 80 senators and 47,000 Roman 
citizens perished, but Scipio Afrieanus forced Hannibal 
to leave Italy for the protection of Carthage, and at the 
battle of fiania, 203 B. 0. s routed the Carthaginian army. 
In the third Punic war, 149-146 B. C, Carthage was 
utterly destroyed, and her territory became a Roman 
province. 

"note.— Besides these wars, the Eomans were Involved in three 
with Macedonia. I. 214-205 B. C; II. 200-197 B. C; and in. 172- 
158 B. C, terminating by the battle of Pydna. The power of Rome 
was now supreme, 

Qiiery.—Who were the " Gracchi f " "When was the Numidian 
War? Who were the Cimbrt and Teutones ? What was the Social 
War? Who was Spartaeus? Who was Folybius? 

21. What was the Triumvirate? 

Ans.— The rule of three men, Pompey, Csesar, and 
Crassus. Pompey had defeated Mithridates, king of 
Pohtus, in three wars, and the Poi tian kingdom w<->3 an- 
nexed to Rome. After the union of these men, Pompey 
remained in Rome, Crassus went to Syria where he was 



50 Dime 'Question Books, 

killed, and Julius Csesar reduced the Belgians, Gauls, and 
Helvetians, 51 B. 0. The death of Crassus left the 
supreme power to be struggled for by his two associates. 
Caesar crossed the Rubicon and marched on to Rome. 
Pompey fled, buJ collecting an army met Csesar near Phar- 
salus in Thessaly and was defeated, August 9, B. C, 48. 
He escaped to Egypt where he was assassinated. 

Note.— In the Roman calendar, the ides mea,nt the thirteenth 
day of each month except in March, May, July, and October, in 
which months it was the fifteenth day. The ides of March was the 
day on which Csesar was assassinated in the Senate house by 
Cassius, Brutus, and other conspirators, 44 B. 0. 

22. When was the Second Triumvirate form- 
ed? 

Ans.— In the year 43 B. 0., by Mark Antony, Oetavius 
and Lepidus, As soon as possible, Lepidus was deprived 
of all power, while Oetavius strengthened himself in Rome, 
and Antony lived in luxury with Cleopatra, queen of 
Egypt. The absolute government of the Roman world 
was decided at the battle of Aciium, 31 B. 0. Antony and 
Cleopatra fled, and both died by their own bands. Oeta- 
vius, who was now supreme ruler, took the new title, 
Augustus. His reign is termed the Augustan, or Golden 
Age of literature. 

23. What was the Prsstorian Guard ? 

Ans.— The body-guard concentrated by Tiberius (A. D. 
14-37), the stepson and successor of Augustus, near Rome 
under General Sejanus. They became the real sovereigns 
of the empire. Tiberius was succeeded by Caligula, one 
of the most bloodthirsty tyrants that ever lived, and, after 
him, Nero reignea from 04 to 68 A. D. He was followed 



Genebal History. 61 

by Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, A. D. 68-70, and Vespasian 
A. D. 70-79. 

Note.— Vespasian was succeeded by his son, Titus, the Soman 
general that destroyed Jerusalem in 70, and Titus by his brother, 
the tyrant Domitian, who was the last of the Twelve Cos&ars. 
Numerous emperors ruled the empire down to the year 476; the 
mild Nerva: Trajan, the test; Hadrian, the patron of literature; 
Pius, the loving, etc. ; but Eome was in a state of decline from the 
death of Marcus Aurelius, 180, until its division by the sons of Con- 
stantine the Great into the Eastern and Western Empire, 364, and 
its final destruction by the Vandals. 

Query.— Who was Tacitus? When was. the first eruption of 
Vesuvius? Who was Caracalla? By whom was Zenobia made a 
prisoner? 

24. Give an account of Constantino the Great. 

Ans. — His reign (324-837) is remarkable for the estab- 
lishment of Christianity as the religion of the Roman Em- 
pire. On his march home from Gaui, where he had been 
employed, he is said to have seen in the heavens a flaming 
cross inscribed in Greek words, " In this emblem conquer " 
(In hocsigno vinces,) which led to his inscribing his banners 
and shields with the cross, In 325 he convened the cele- 
brated Council of Nice, and declared Christianity to be the 
official religion. Byzantium, the capital, was called Con- 
stantinople in his honor. At the division of the empire by 
his two sons, Valens took the eastern half, with his capital 
at Constantinople, and Valentinian, the western, with the 
capital at Rome, 

25. Who were the Goths and Vandals 1 

Ans. — The influx of the ferocious Huns into Europe in 
375, led to the downfall of the Western Empire. Alaric 
invaded Greece in 395, advanced toward the west in 403, 
and the next year frightened the Romans Into a promise of 



52 Dime Qoestiojn Books. 

an annual tribute. In 409 and 410, he captured the city 
twice, and the second time pillaged and partly burned it. 
The last victory achieved in the name of Rome, was the 
defeat of Attila, " the Scourge of God,' 5 king of the Huns, 
at Chalons, in France, 451. A third tribe of barbarians, 
the Vandals, under command of Genseric, their ablest 
monarch, after surprising Carthage, entered Rome in June, 
455. ' ! For fourteen days the city was devoted to fire and 
pillage, and large collections of its valuables were carried 
away to Carthage." Romulus Augustus, the last of the 
emperors, a handsome, but feeble youth, was pen- 
sioned off in 476. Odoacer, a son of one of the ministers 
of Attila, became the Gothic King of Italy. 

26. When was the last of the gladiators ? 

ANS.—In the year 404, Telemachus, an eastern monk, 
suddenly appeared in the Arena of the Colosseum at Rome 
between two gladiators, and, with prayer and gesture, 
bore his testimony against these unchristian games. The 
Praetor Alybius immediately ordered his slaughter. Struck 
with his grand heroism, the Emperor Honorius abolished 
the shows, and never after were they permitted. Telem- 
achus was canonized, and is now in the Saint's Calendar. 

27. Who were the Saracens ? 

Ans. — The term is applied to the Arabs and their 
descendants, who conquered a large part of Asia, Africa 
and Europe, early in the seventh century. They were 
Mohammedans, or believers in Mohammed (or Mahomet), 
who was a camel driver of Mecca. He preached a new 
religion, called Islam, "salvation." The written creed is 
the Koran. The inhabitants of Mecca, disgusted with the 
tenets of the new religion and the personal habits of Mo- 
hammed, drove him from the city in 623, This is the 



General History, 53 

Mohammedan era, and from the prophet's flight, the Eegira, 
time is reckoned among the Turks and Saracens. 

Query.— What is the history of Italy down to the time of Char- 
lemagne ? What became of Odoacer ? What is feudalism,? When 
were the " Dark Ages "? Define chivalry. 

28. Who was Peter the Hermit ? 

Ans, — Jerusalem was taken by the Turks in 1073, and 
the Christians were taxed, plundered, persecuted or slaugh- 
tered. Stories of these troubles were brought back by 
returning pilgrims, some of whom had been unable so 
much as to enter the city whose streets they so longed to 
tread, but no exaggerations were sufficient to deter the 
deluded people of Europe from continuing their pilgrim- 
ages, Among these "palmers" was Peter the Hermit 
(1050-1115), who, being encouraged by a vision he pro- 
fessed to have seen while in the Holy City, began, in 1094, 
to preach the deliverance of the Holy Land through all the 
countries of Europe. 

Note.— The empress Helena.mother of Constantine the Great, 
(following the example of the faithful, who from the earliest Chris- 
Han times had been in the habit of visiting different places made 
sacred by the life of our Savior) marked her pilgrimage by churches 
which she #.used to be erected. Her son built a church over the 
supposed site of the Holy Sepulchre. Pilgrimages were encour- 
aged by every possible means, and their neglect was at a later 
period regarded as impiety. 

29. Give the history of the Crusades ? 

Ans —Pope Urban, at the Council of Clermont in 1095, 
instigated his hearers to release that illustrious land (Pales- 
tine) from a race of heathen.. The extension of the Truce 
of God, which was an effort on the part of the church to 
mitigate the evils arising from the private wars of feudal 
times, furthered the plan, and finally Peter's eloquence, 



\ 



54- Dime Question Books. 

acting first upon the masses, then upon the higher nobility, 
moved the sovereigns to join in the Crusades. August 15, 
1069, was the day fixed for the first great expedition, but 
early in the spriDg, the Hermit, impatient of delay, started 
with a great rabble under Walter the Penniless. These 
soon returned. Godfrey de Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, 
started at the appointed time, conducting his great army 
to Constantinople, capturing the city of Nice in 1097, and 
arriving at Jerusalem in 1099. The attack was made on 
July 14th, and the next day they entered the city, massa- 
cring the Turks in great numbers. Bouillon was made 
king with the title of Defender of the Holy Sepulchre. 

Note.— In all there were eight crusades. The third (1187) was 
the most important and interesting, from the great men prominent 
in it— Saladin, Frederic Barharossa, Philip II. , Richard I., Cwitr 
de lAon. Following, the fourth was the strange crusade of the 
children in 1212. The four following, of minor interest and impor- 
tance, occurred in the years 1217, 1228, 1248, and 1270. 

30. When began the rise of Popery ? 

Ans„— The papacy first became a temporal power at the 
close of the eighth century. Pepin, of France, invaded 
Italy to rescue it from the Lombards, and gave Ravenna 
to the pope. During the next three centuries, the sover- 
eigns were endeavoring to restrict the power of the eccle- 
siastics, and this antagonism culminated in the outbreak 
between Henry IV., Emperor of Germany, and Pope 
Gregory VII., better known by his surname, Hildebrand. 
There have been more than two hundred ond fifty popes 
from the earliest date to the present time. Their history 
has complicated the events of every country in Europe. 
After the Reformation (1520), the influence of the Pope 
gradually declined. His temporal power ended in 1870, 
when Victor Emanuel, King of Italy, took possession of 
the " States of the Church." 



- General History. 55 

Qttety.—WbSil were the ■■ investttureat " What absolution did 
Henry IV, undergo? Who were the Guelphs and Ghibellines? 
When did the popes reside at Avignon? 

81. Give an account of Venice. 

Ans. —Venice rose into distinction as a republic early 
in the fourteenth century, as Genoa was losing her politi- 
cal independence, though the Venetians boast immemorial 
freedom. The city was a commercial power before Genoa 
and Pisa had entered mercantile pursuits, and she was in 
a position to be enriched by the crusades. 

NOTE.-From 1350 to 1500, there is no general history of Italy, 
for the cities were ruled by local families, and the period is marked 
by a succession of dissensions and civil wars. 

82. Who was Beatrice Oenci ? 

Ans.-— A remarkably beautiful girl who was born about 
1583, and executed in September, 1599, when she was but 
sixteen years old. Her father, Francesco Cenci, subjected 
her and her step mother to atrocious cruelties. Beatrice 
vainly appealed to Pope Clement VIII. for protection, and 
the she and her step mother determined to rid themselves 
of their unnatural persecutor. On September 9th, 1598, 
they drugged Francesco, and Beatrice introduced assassins 
into his room, where he was murdered while asleep. One of 
the murderers made a full confession of the homicide, im- 
plicating Beatrice, her step mother, and two brothers as 
being parties to the crime. They were tried for murder, 
and all, save the younger brother, were found guilty, and 
subsequently executed. To the last moment, Beatrice dis- 
played the most heroic courage, and her youth and beauty 
were so great that her execution caused a thrill of horror 
throughout Rome. 



56 Dime Question Books. 

"guido's masterpiece." 

There stands, on one of Rome's far famous hillg, 

The palace of the Barberini race: 
Within, amidst the varied art which fills 

The walls, there hangs the painting of a face. 

33. What are the six dynasties of the German 
empire ? 

Ans.— -The Carlomngian, (481-911); the Savon, (919- 
1024); the Franconian, (1024-1125); the Suabian, or Holien- 
staufen, (1138-1254); the house of Eapsburg, (1273-1438) j 
and the house of Austria, (1438-188.3). 

Note.— From the " migration of nations" about 370, we can 
trace the origin of the Germans from the Franks and Burgundians 
of the Visi-Goths, or West Goths. Charlemagne (742-814) was a 
wonderful man, worthy to be, as he was, Charles the Great, and 
Charles the First, both of the French and German and Roman 
empires. He was crowned " Emperor of the West" by the Pope 
of Rome, Christmas day, 800, and after married Irene, Queen of 
Byzantium. This coronation revived, in name, the Roman Empire. 
But the new empire depended on him alone, as his death fully 
proved. In 722, he began a war for the extension of the Christian 
religion. He defeated the Lombards, subdued the Saxons, and 
was obliged to interfere between the Moors and Arabs in Spain. 

34. What is said of his successors ? 

Ans.-— They were men of inferior capacity. The first, 
Louis le Debonnaire, (778-S4Q), in 807 divided his empire 
among his three sons. France, Italy and Germany thus 
became practically independent of one another. Louis II., 
846-879, was succeeded by Charles III., 822-888, cabled the 
Fat, who, proviDg weak and imbecile, was deposed by the 
German princes, and his nephew Arnulf elected as his 
successor. The Carlovingian line ended in his son, Louis 
III. 



General History. 57 

35. Who were the rulers of the Saxon dynasty? 

Ans.— Henry I., 876-936, who conquered the Sclavonic 
ans and Hungarians at the battle of Musebarg; Otho the 
Great, 912-973; Otho II., 955-983, called the Bed from his 
complexion, and the Bloody from his cruelty; Otho III., 
080-1002; and Henry II., 972-1024, 

Note.— During the reign of Otho the Great lived the Bishop 
Hatto, whose name is associated with the legend of the "Mouse 
Tower " on the Rhine, upon which Southey has founded a ballad, 
though the story of his having been devoured by rats is thought to 
be of much later origin. 

36. Who was Conrad the Suabian? 

Ans. —The first ruler under the Franconian Dynasty, 
succeeded by his son, Henry III, 1017-1056, and followed 
by Henry IV.,— to whom reference has already been made 
— Henry V., and Lothaire, 

37. What noted incident occurred in 1140 ? 

Ans.— Conrad III., the first emperor under the Hohen- 
staufen Dynasty, in 1138 made war against Guelphus, 
Duke of Bavaria, and laid siege to the city of Weinsburg. 
The women, finding that the town could not possibly hold 
out long, petitioned the emperor that they might be 
allowed to depart out of it, carrying their "dearest jewels." 
Conrad, knowing that they could not convey away many 
of their effects, granted their petition, when, to his great 
surprise, the women came out of the place bearing their 
husbands on their backs. The emperor was so moved at 
the sight that he burst into tears, and after having extolled 
the women for their conjugal affection, gave the men to 
their wives, and received the duke into his favor. 



68 Dime Question Books. 

38. Who was Frederic Barbarossa ? 

Ans.— The most powerful and brilliant emperor that 
Germany has ever had. He died in 1190, while on the 
third crusade, and was succeeded by his son, Henry VI, 
1165-1197. 

Note.— The reign of many of these emperors was signalized by 
the never-ending conflicts of the Guelphs and the Ghibellinee ; 
Interrupted by the rule of Frederick II., from 1194 to 1250. 

/ 

^39. Who were the Rulers of the 11 House of 
Hapsburg ? 

Ans.— Count Rudolph, 1218-1291. AdoJphus of Nas- 
sau, who died in 1298, and was succeeded by the son of 
Rodolph, Albert I,, a severe and despotic ruler, who wan 
murdered in 1308. The Swiss Republic was founded this 
year, and its independence acknowledged in 1499. To 
this period belongs the legend of William and his shooting 
of Gessler. Henry VII. was elected emperor in 1308, anc! 
died in 1318, During the reign of Charles IV., Rienzi, 
1313-1354. made an effort "to realize the bright dreams of 
Italian unity, which have fatally inspired so many patriot i 
from Dante to Mazzani and Garabaldi." Wenceslaus, the 
son of Charles, was defeated at the battle of Sempach, 
1386, by the Swiss, through the sacrifice of Arnold von "Win- 
kelried. 

Note.— The mariner's eompass, gunpowder and cannon came 
into use early in the 14th century. The invention of printing is 
claimed by the Germans and Dutch. Gntenburg, a German.print- 
ed a quarto Bible about 1450, a copy of which in excellent preser- 
vatiod was sold for S8,000atthe Brinley book sale, Hartford, Conn., 
April llth, 1831. 

Query.— Who was John Huss ? When were the Hussite Wars? 
Who were Jerome and John Zischka ? What was the Hanseatic 
League? the Suabian League? Give the history of Maximilian I. 



General History. 59 

40* What was the Reformation % 

Am — Tetzel, agent of Pope Leo X., had been sent to 
preach indulgence to those who gave money for the build- 
ing of the church of St. Peter at Rome, and he did so in 
such extreme terms— absolving the holder of an "indul- 
gence " not only from sins committed but even from sins 
that he intended to commit— that he aroused Martin Luther, 
1483-1546, a theological lecturer at the University of Wit- 
tenberg, to publish, in 1517, a series of ninety-fine theses, 
boldly opposing this traffic. Summoned before the Diet 
of Worms, Luther was ordered to retract, but boldly 
refused to do so. BurniDg a bull of the pope, in which his 
writings were denounced, in 1520, he was declared a here- 
tic. The people, in pursuance of what they supposed to 
be his wishes, engaged in riotous proceedings, and this was 
followed by the Peasants' War of 1525, causing the loss of 
100,000 lives and the destruction of many monasteries and 
castles of the nobles. The " Augsburg Confession" was 
signed by seven princes and fifteen cities, who protested 
against the resolutions of the Diet of Spire in 1529. The 
treaty of Augsburg (1555) granted religious liberty to the 
Protestant states^)f Germany. 

41, Who was Charles V J 

Ans.— Successor to Charles IV,, of Germany, and 
usually called Charles I., of Spain. In 1524, he com- 
menced war against Italy. The French, who held north- 
ern Italy, were driven out, and their king, Francis I., 
1494-1547, was sent as prisoner to Madrid. .The celebrated 
Chevalier Bayard was killed at the beginning of this war. 
In 1555, he abdicated his throne, giving the dominion of 
the Netherlands, Spain, Naples, and the New World to 
his son, Philip II. Daring his reign, 1540, arose the order 
of Jesuits, under their leader, Ignatius Loyala, 1491-1556, 



60 Dime Question Books. 

42. When was the Thirty Years' War? 

Ans.— Germany was the theatre of a succession of 
wars from 1618 to 1648. They arose from the differences 
of religious faith. The two noted men during this war 
were Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, who was 
killed at the battle of Luizen, November 6th, 1632; and 
Aibert von Wallenstein, who led the imperial forces 
against Gustavus, and was assassinated in 1634. 

Note.— After this war Germany never regained its former 
proud position, and the two kingdoms of Austria and Prussia rose 
into great importance. Leopold I., of Hungary, 1840-1705, held his 
country against violent attacks of the Turks, and was engaged In 
three wars with Louis XIV. , of France. In the last was fought the 
celebrated battle of Blenheim, in 1704, 

43. Who were the five great generals of mod- 
ern times? 

Ans. — Prince Eugene, who gained the battles of Peter- 
wardein (1716) and Beldrade(1717), Wellington, Napoleon, 
Marlborough, and Frederic the Great. 

44. When was the Seven Years' War? 

Ans. — It was fought at the same time of our French 
and Indian war; i. e, t from 1756 to 1763. Maria Theresa, 
daughter of Charles VI., engaged in this war with Fred- 
eric the Great, which gained glory for Prussia, but was of 
no advantage to Austria. 

45. What Austrian Monarch fought Napo- 
leon? 

Ans.— Francis I., in 1809, entered upon a very disas- 
trous war, costing him a large portion of his territory, 
forcing him to enter into an alliance with the French em- 



General History. 61 

peror against Russia, and allowing Napoleon to marry his 
daughter, Maria Louisa. His successor, Ferdinand L, 
"was engaged in the conflict with Louis Kossuth in 1848. 

Note,— Frederic the Great, of Prussia, was succeeded by 
Frederic William II., 1744-1797; Frederic William III., 1770-1840; 
Frederic William IV., 1795-1861; and William I., 1797 . 

Query.— What was the Sehleswig-Kolstein difficulty? When 
was the battle of Sadowa fought? Who is Prince von Bismark- 
Echcenhausen? • 

4:6. What is the history of France ? 

Ans.— The first king of France was Eudes, or Hugh,, 
crowned in 888, He was succeeded by Charles III., who 
was so intimidated by the northman s Chief Rollo, that in 912 
he gave to him the hand of his daughter, with the present 
territory of Normandy as dowry. Rollo became the first 
duke of Normandy, and the ancestor of William the 
Conqueror, 

Note.— The history of France, under the Carlovingian dynasty 
and the House of Capet, is intimately associated with that of 
Germany. A succession of petty wars and the participation of its 
monarchs in the crusades are the only matters of interest up to 
the founding of the House of Valois in 1328. 

47. What was the Hundred Years' War ? 

• Am— A struggle on the part of England for the crown 
of France. By the battle of Agincourt, October 15, 1415, 
most of the French territory was given up to the English, 
but, in 1429, Jeanne D'Arc, the "Maid of Orleans" a 
young peasant girl twenty years of age, at the head of the 
French army, animated by enthusiasm, gained some 
minor victories. Subsequently she was taken by the Eng- 
lish, and burned alive in the market place at Rouen. 
Charles VII,, though treating this tragedy with indiffer- 
ence, entered upon the war with so much vigor that by 



62 Dime Question Books. 

1453 the whole of France, excepting Calais, was restored. 
His successors were Louis XI., Charles VIII., Louis XIL, 
and Francis L, whose reign is remarkable for the persecu- 
tions of the Protestants. 

48. When was the massacre of St. Bartholo- 
mew? 

Ans. — It occurred on 6fc. Bartholomew's Eve, August 
24, 1572. The dreadful work began upon the ringing of 
the bell of the church of St. Germain 1' Anxerrois opposite 
the palace. The victims in the city were estimated as 
high as 10,000. By royal order of Charles IX., the massa- 
cre was extended to the provinces, where 80,000 more were 
slain. 

49. What was the Edict of Nantes ? 

Ans.— An Edict by Henry IV. (Navarre) in which he 
granted religious toleration to the Protestants. It was 
passed April 13, 1598, and revoked by Louis XIV., October 
22, 1685. The revocation caused the emigration of 50,000 
Prostestant families, some of whom settled in Charleston, 

a c. 

50. How was the Honse of Bourbon estab- 
lished ? 

Ans.— -By a severe contest, in which Henry VI. defeated 
Mayenne, general of the "League," at the battle of Ivry, 
in 1590. The Bourbons ruled from 1589 to 1793. Louis 
XVI. was guillotined on the 21st of January "amid the 
wild shouts of the people," and in less than a month after 
the Queen Marie Antoinette was beheaded. These were 
the days of the Revolution, in which the National. Assem- 



General History. 63 

bly ruled France; the Bastile was stormed; the streets 
were drenched with human blood; and the names of the 
crafty Talleyrand, the good Lafayette, and the notorious 
Danton, Marat, and Robespierre, are written on her 
Tiistory. 

51. Who was known as "Le Petit Corporal >3 ? 

A:NS.~-This was a term of endearment applied to Napo- 
leon Bonaparte, 1769-1821, by the French army, From 
the time of his dispersion of the National Guard, October 
4, 1706, to his final defeat at Waterloo, June 18, 1815, he 
was successively engaged in establishing himself as Em- 
peror of the French; crowning his brothers Joseph, King 
of Naples, and Louis, King of Holland; subduing Italy; 
ihumbling Austria; conquering Spain; and defeating the 
allied armies of Russia, Prussia, and England. 

Note.— The house of Orleans, established in 1830, was ended 
i>y the revolution of 1848. From the latter date to 1852, a republic 
existed under the presidency of Louis Napoleon, who, by Ms coup 
d' etat of December 2, managed to have himself proclaimed em- 
peror, as Napoleon III. Uniting his forces with those of Victor 
Emanuel, the two emperors gained the battles of Magenta and 
Solferino over the Austrians, in June, 1869. 

Query.— When was the Franco -Prussian War? What was the 
result of the battle of Sedan f Who was first president of the new 
French republic? Who is the present incumbent? 

52. Give the history of Spain, 

Ans. — In 711, the Moors, Arabs, or Saracens as they 
are also called,, came from Africa and conquered nearly 
the whole of Spain, establishing their capital at Cordova. 
Their supremacy was gradually reduced, and, in 1492, all 
Moors and Jews were banished from the country by Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella. Ferdinand was succeeded by Charles I. 



64 Dime Question Books. 

also emperor of Germany, who abdicated in favor of his 
son, Pliilip IL The principal aim of Philip's life was the 
extension of the Komish Church. He was engaged in 
cccflicts with the Pope, the Sultan, and Henry II. of 
France. Upon his return, he attended an auto-de fe, act of 
faith, at which fourteen Protestants, condemned by the 
Inquisition, were burned at the stake. His "War with 
the Netherlands," and the "Invincible Armada" sent 
against England were both unsuccessful. 

Note.— The independence of the United States of Holland 
was formally acknowledged In 1648. The southern provinces called 
Belgium, after varying fortunes declared themselves independent 
in 1830, placing Leopold I. on the throne. Her independence was 
acknowledged by Holland in 1883. 

53. When was the naval power of Spain 



Ans.— In 1805, at the battle of Trafalgar, when Lord 
Nelson, at the cost of his own life, gained a decisive vic- 
tory over the allied fleets of Spain and France under the 
command of Count Yilleneuve, 

Note.— The remainder of Spanish history is principally that 
of a series of internal dissensions and revolutions, the partisan 
warfare carried on by Don Carlos within the past few years Deing 
a sample of the afflictions of Spain. 

54. Who were the Angles ? 

Ans. — Savage tribes dwelling in the lowlands of North 
Germany, who, with the Jutes and Saxons, invaded Briton 
about 450 and waged war on both Romans and Britons. 
The country became known as Angl eland from the Angles, 
and this name finally became the modern name England. 
The German invaders and the native Britons never coal- 
esced. The latter were gradually exterminated and driven 
into "Wales and Scotland. 



General History. 65 

55, Who were the conquerors of England ? 

Ans. — The Danes. After many invasions of the days 
of Egbert, who became king of England in 827, they con- 
quered the country and ruled it from 1013 to 1041. Again, 
after having lived on the coasts of France, the same. peo- 
ple, as Normans, under ^William the Conqueror overcame 
the English under King Harold at the battle of Hastings in 
1060, 

56. How long did the Plantagenets rule ? 

Ans.— From 1154 to 1485. Henry II., the first of this 
line of kings, is the one "who held the stirrup for Pope 
Alexander to mount his horse." His reign is tarnished, by 
the murder of Thomas & Becket in 1170. Henry was suc- 
ceeded by Richard I., who started for the Holy Land sooa 
after his coronation, leaving his brother John to rule Eng- 
land. The gentle outlaw of the Sherwood forest, Robin 
Hood, lived at this time. From John the nobles forced the 
signature of the Magna Gharta, on the meadow of Runny- 
mede, near Windsor, June 15, 1215. 

Note.— John was followed by six kings, the last of whora.Rioh- 
ard II., 1368-14CO, was only 11 years old at the time of his acces- 
sion, the affairs of the kingdom being managed by his uncles, the 
dukes of Lancaster, York and Gloucester, whose family quarrels 
led to the Wars of the Roses in 1455-1485. 

Query.— Who were the three kings of the House of Lancaster ? 
When was Jack Cade's Eebellion ? Who was the " King-maker"? 
What three kings had a white rose for a badge ? What happened 
at Bosworth ? 

47. Who were the Tudors? 

Ans. — The reigning family of Great Britain from 1485 
to 1603. 'The first monarch, Henry VII., married Elizabeth, 
sister of the princes who were supposed to have been mur- 



66 Dims Question Books. 

dered by Richard III,, thus uniting the houses of Lancas- 
ter and York. He was succeeded by Henry VIII. with 
his six wives, Edward VI., Mary, and Queen Elizabeth. 
The latter was a patroness of literature, and her reign was 
a golden one. She gave aid to the Huguenots, took up 
the cause of the people of the Netherlands, and totally 
destroyed the Spanish Armada sent against England by 
Philip II,, her former suitor. She was succeeded by 
James L, the beginning of the Stuart line. His son, 
Charles I., was beheaded on January 30, 1649. 

58. When was the rule of the Commonwealth ? 

Ans — Under Cromwell's Protectorate, from 1649 to 
1660, when the Stuart line was restored in the person of 
Charles II. His reign was troubled with the insurrection 
of the Fifth Monarchy Men, the Great Plague, the Great 
Fire, the Rye House Plot, etc. 

Note.— The house of Stuart and Nassau succeeded the revolu- 
tion of 1688 and consequent flight of James II. to France, by the suc- 
cession of William and Mary. Queen Anne reigned from 1702 to 
1714. Then the House of Brunwick which still rules the destinies 
of Great Britain. The present sovereign, Queen Victoria, com- 
pleted her sixty-third year on May 24th, 1882, an age which has 
only been exceded by eleven of her predecessors, dating from the 
Norman conquest, viz : Henry I., Henry III., Edward I. ; Edward 
III., Queen Elizabeth, James II., George I., George II., George 
III., George IV., and William IV. To-day (Juue 20th) she has 
reigned for forty-five years, a reign which has been exceeded in 
length by only the three kings,. Henry III., Edward III., and 
George III. 

Query.— Who was Guy Fawkes? When was the battle of 
Naseby fought? Who tortured the Covenanters? Who was judge 
of the " Bloody assize " in 1685. When was the battle of Culloden 
fought? Who was king of England during the Revolutionary War? 
Give the history of Horatio Nelson. Who was called the First 
Gentleman in Europe? What victory was won by Sir John 
Moore? 



General History. 67 

59. What was the rise of the Dutch Republic? 
Ans. — The Netherlands belonged to Spain at the time 

of the Reformation, but revolted in 1567 on the introduc- 
tion of the Inquisition, Against Philip II., they made a 
determined resistance, led by "William the Silent," of 
Nassau, Prince of Orange. The war ended in 1009. 

60. What is the history of China and Japan ? 

Ans. — But little was known, accurately, of these coun- 
tries until the present century. China has a very ancient 
civilization, dating back to at least 2,000 B. C. The reli- 
gion of the country is Confucianism, from Confucius, its 
founder. The Chinese are said to have invented the mari- 
ner's compass and gunpowder. 

61. Who was King John Sobieski ? 

The ruler of Poland when she became one of the great 
powers in Europe. He compelled the Turks to raise the 
siege of Vienna in 1683. After this Poland rapidly de- 
clined, becoming a prey to internal dissensions and the 
rapacity of her neighbors. By the infamous agreement 
entered into between Austria, Prussia, and Russia, she 
was "partitioned" among these powers in 1772. A sec- 
ond and a third partition, in 179.2 and 1795, wiped her from 
the list of nations. The unfortunate Poles made a gallant 
defence of their liberties, but in vain. 

62. What country belongs to the Slavonian 
race % 

Ans.— Russia. The early history of this country is 
unimportant. It w T as overrun by the Tartars in the 13tb 
century. The invaders held the country for a long time, 



% 



63 Dime Question Books. 

and the Russian Dukes were considered vassals of the 
Tartar Khans. Ivan HI., who became czar about the time 
that Elizabeth ascended the throne of England, delivered 
Russia from Tartar supremacy. 

Note.— Peter the Great, who lives in the memory of Russians 
as the i( Father of his Country," the head of the present royal 
famil: , was born in 1672, and was crowned when only ten years 
old. The familiar story of his working as a common ship-earpen- 
ter in Holland is too well known for recital. The war with Sweden 
was the great event of his reign. He died in 1723. 

63. Who was Catherine the Great ? 

Ans. — Next to Peter the Great, the ablest and most suc- 
cessful of the Russian autocrats. During her reign of 
thirty-four years (1762-1790), she achieved the conquest of 
the Crimea, and won still more by her share in the *' Par- 
tition of Poland." Suwarrow was her great general. She 
was succeeded by her son Paul, an eccentric, half- crazy 
creature, who was murdered in 1801, His son, Alexander 
I., came to the throne, and he was great-grandfather of 
the present Alexander III., who lives in mortal dread of 
the Nihilists- 

Query.— What was the result of the Crimean War? When was 
the charge of the Six Hundred? How was Alexander II. assassin- 
ated? When was the battle of Warsaw ? Who was Kosciusko? 

65. Who were the rulers of Sweden ? 

Ans. — Sweden, belonging originally to Denmark, had 
revolted towarsl the end of the 15th century. Gustavus 
Vasa, leading the Swedes to victory, was crowned king in 
1527. The next sovereigns were Queen Christiana, Charles 
X., Charles XL and Charles XII., the "Madman of tfie 
North" The latter, after defeating th,e Poles and Danes^ 
attacked a force of Russians ten times his own army, at 



General Histosy, 69 

Narva, and totally defeated them. Laying siege to PvJr 
towa, his army was destroyed, and he was obliged to flee 
to Turkey with 300 followers. He was fiaally killed by a 
cannon ball while besieging the castle of Fredericshall, in 
Norway, 1718. The head of the present family was Ber- 
nadotte, 1765-1844, a French officer, who took the title 
Charles XIV. He owed his elevation to his military repu- 
tation, and to the suffrages of the Diet. 



Mnemonics. 



i7*o_cq i Seven Years' War in Europe, 
i/ou-o<j ■( French and Indian War. 

51513-31 ( Transposition. Balboa and Pizarro. 
t Rio 91 i Pocahontas's Marriage and Captain Jonn 
lblS-31 | Smith's death. 

1 1531-4— t Voyages of Verrazani and Cartier. 
1 153*4 ( Conquest of Peru and DeSoto's deatk. 
[1541 — i 

T „„_ orjfv j 1776— Sullivan's Island, 
june^tn ^ 1778 „, B attle f Monmouth. 

( 1777— Battle of Bennington. 
Aug, 16th < 1780— Battle of Camden. 

( 1812— Hull's Surrender at Detroit 

o . 1 1 1 , j 1813— Perry's Victory on Lake Erie. 

bepi. inn -j i3i4_McDonougU , s Victory, L. Champlain. 

fl791 

1792-t 
- 1796 j Admission of States, 

1802+03 
k 1812-1 

April 19th -j }^ !■ First blood 6hc& 



T1501 
1755-63 J 1601 

1775-83 1 1701 

(1801 



fO Dime Question Books. 



Six States admitted. 



1816 
1817 

1818 

1819 

1820 

U821 



When was the battle of Philippi fought? What was 
the temple of Janus? What questions were settled at the 
council of Nice? Who was the " Old Man of the Moun- 
tains? " What was the " heroic '• event? Who was Gen- 
ghis Khan? Where did the Franks settle? When did 
Lorenzo de s Medici live? Who were the "Jacquerie?" 
By whom was "Einfeste burg ist unser Gott" composed? 
Describe the first crusade, giviog its causes and its results. 
What comparison is there between the destruction of Jeze- 
bel, and the precipitation of traitors from the Tarpeian 
Rock at Rome? When were the Silesian Wars? Who 
assassinated Henry IY., of France? When did the Cardi- 
nal de Richelieu live? What king had the motto " Ich 
dien" (I serve)? What three emperors commanded at 
Austerlitz? Whose fate was made the subject of a trag- 
edy by Goethe? What was the Inquisition ? When was 
the Conquest of Ireland? What is the oldest city in the 
world? Ans., Damascus. When was the Barons' War? 
Who was Wat Tyler? When and how was Magna Charta 
obtained? Who were Abelard and Heloise? When was 
the "Sepoy Rebellion?" Who were the imposters of the 
reign of Henry VII. ? What was the " Reign of Terror?" 
Who were the Jacobins? Name some of the great states- 
men of Europe at the present time, giving the position 
which each occupies. When was the Unification of Italy? 
Who lived in a tub? How often did the Olympiads recur? 



General History. 



u 



When and under what circumstances did Greece become a 
Roman province? Who added to each vote the expression, 
" Belenda est Carthagof" What is the only example of 
Semitic literature? What is the oldest literary monument 
of the Iranic race? . Who were JSneas, Achilles, and Hec- 
tor? Who was the "Old Man Eloquent?" What general 
was called (< 01d Hickory?" Who said ** Aprhmoile 
delugef"' What were the Marian persecutions? When 
was "Black Friday?" When were the Articles of Con- 
federation adopted? What three Congresses have we had? 
Who was the first proposer of secession in the U. S. Con- 
gress? Where are the Heights of Abraham? How did 
Maryland derive its name? Who was Molly Clark? What 
was Le Bon Homme Richard? Give an account of the 
guerillas, Mosby, Morgan and Quantrell. What is meant 
by the "salary grab?" What were the Alien and Sedition 
Laws? When was Iowa admitted? Who was the 14th 
president? Who was the rider of the Black Horse, at 
Saratoga? How many signers to the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence ? 




ASTRONOMY 



.ASTRONOMY. 



1. What is Astronomy ? (atfrpoy^ "star" yo^6^ 
"law,") 

Am— The most ancient of all sciences. 

2. Define it. 

Ans.— It is that science which teaches the knowledge 
of the celestial bodies, their magnitude, motions, distances, 
periods of revolution, ecljpses, order, and of the causes of 
their various phenomena. This science depends on obser- 
vations made chiefly with instruments, and upon mathe- 
matical observations. 

Note.— The CMnese, who boast much ol their astronomical 
discoveries, possess an account of a conjunction of four planets and 
the moon which must have occurred a century before the Flood . 
They have also the first record of an eclipse of the sun, which took 
place October 13th, 2187 B. C— about 220 years after the Deluge. It 
is said that 2000 years before Christ one of their kings put to death 
the principal officers of state because they failed to calculate an 
approaching eclipse. 

3. What are the celestial bodies ? 

Ans.— The sun and stars, moon and planets, comets and 
nebula. 

4. Define them. 

Ans. The sun and stars are globes of the fiercest fire, 



76 *">*jce Question Books. 

compared to which a mass of white hot iron is as cold as 
ice. They shine, or give out light, because they are white- 
hot. At their surfaces, masses of metals and other sub- 
stances are mingling together with a heat more fierce than 
anything we can imagine. The planets are comparatively 

small bodies travelling around the sun at various distances 
from him, Our earth is one of them. They are all dark 
bodies — obscure, or non-self 'luminous— and obtain their 
light and heat from the sun. The moon is a planet of the 
earth; it is to the earth what the earth is to the sun. In 
the moon we have a specimen of a third order of bodies, 
called satellites, or companions. The comets and nebulae 
are quite distinct from stars and planets, for they are in 
part masses of gas. 

Note.— The nebulas lie far away from us, some of them perhaps 
out of our universe altogether: the comets rush for the most part 
from distant regions to our/sun, and, having gone round him, they 
go hack again, and we see them for ar small part of their journey 
only. Nebulae and comets, like the stars, shine because they are 
white-hot; but in the case of stars we are dealing with incandes- 
cent, solid, liquid or densely gaseous matter, while in the case of 
the nebulae and eomets, we are dealing with gas in a very rarefied 
state, and probably also at a lower temperature. 

5. What is the difference in the appearance of 
a fixed star and of a planet ? 

Ans. — Those stars which shine v/ith a clear, distinct 
light, and change their position with respect to the others, 
are called planets. Those which remain immovable, and 
shine with a shifting, twinkling light, are termed fixed 
stars, although it is now known that they also are in 
motion. 

6. What are the two branches of Astronomy? 



Astronomy. 77 

An3.— 1. Physical Astronomy, which deah with the 
laws of motion and the structure of the heavenly bodies; 
and, 2, Practical Astronomy, which teaches us how their 
movements may be made to help mankind. 

Query.— From what two Greek words is the name Astronomy 
derived? What was the "Saros" or "Chaldean Period"? 
Eudoxus, who lived in the fourth century B.C., invented the theory 
of the Crystalline Spheres. What was it? 

7. WhowasThales? 

Ans.— One of the Seven Wise Men in the seventh cen- 
tury B, C, who established the first school of Astronomy 
in Greece, He taught that the earth is round, and that 
the moon receives her light from the sun. He introduced 
the division of the earth's surface into zones, and the the- 
ory of the obliquity of the ecliptic. He also predicted an 
eclipse of the sun, which is memorable in ancient history 
as having terminated a war between the Medes and Lydi- 
ans. These nations were engaged in a fierce battle, but the 
awe produced by the darkening of the sun was so great 
that both sides threw down their arms and made peace, 
One of his pupils, Anaximander, erected the first sundial 
at Sparta, 

8. What is the Ecliptic f 

Ans. — The great circle of the heavens, along which the 
gun performs his annual peth, so-called because when 
either sun or moon is eclipsed it is in this circle. Or the 
plane of the sun's apparent, and the earth's real motion. 

Note.— From the remotest antiquity, the stars have been 
classified into groups called constellations, each constellation being 
fancifully named after some object which the arrangement of the 
Stars composing it was thought to suggest. 

9. When was the first classification of stars? 



78 Dime Question Books. 

Am— About the year 150 A. D., made by Ptolemy, of 
Alexandria, who arranged the 1033 stars observed at 
Rhodes by Hipparchus, the Bithynian astronomer, of the 
second century B. C. His catalogue contains 48 constella- 
tions; two were added by Tycho Brahe, the celebrated 
Danish astronomer, and to these fifty (called the ancient) 
constellations, have been added in more modern times 59, 
carrying the number up to 109. 

10. What is meeant by " magnitudes f" 

Ans.— All of the stars visible to the naked eye are 
divided into six classes of brightness, called magnitudes, so 
that we speak of a very brilliant one as "a star of the first 
magnitude "; of the feeblest visible, as a star of the sixth 
magnitude, and so on. 

11. What are telescopic stars? 

Ans.— The number of stars of all magnitudes visible to 
the naked eye is about 6 } 000; so that the greatest number 
visible at any one lime— as we can see only one-half of the 
sky at once—is 3,000. If we employ a small telescope, 
this number is largely increased, as that instrument ena- 
bles us to see stars too feeble to be perceived by the eye 
alone. Such stars are called " telescopic stars" 

Note.— -The zodiacal constellation $ are to foe distinguished from 

the signs of the zodiac bearing the same name. In English and in 

rhyme these are under : 

"The Earn, the Bull, the Heavenly Twins, 
And next the Crab, the Lion shines, 

The Virgin and the Scales, 
The Scorpion. Archer, and He-goat, 
The man that bears the Watering-pot, 
And Fish with glittering tails." 

12. Who was Pythagoras ? 

Ans. —The founder of the second celebrated astronomi- 



Astronomy, 79 

cal school, at Orotona, at which were educated hundreds of 
enthusiastic pupils. ,He knew the causes Of eclipses, and 
calculated them by means of the Baros. He was most 
emphatically a dreamer. He conceived a system of the 
universe in many respects correct; yet he advanced no 
proof, and made few converts to his views, which were 
soon well-nigh forgotten. 

13. What was the Copernican system? 

Ans. — A revival of the theory of Pythagoras by Coper- 
nicus, the Prussian philosopher, about the middle of the 
I6th century. He was followed by Tycho Brahe, who 
propounded a modification of this system. Rejecting the 
ideas of cycles and epicycles, he was influenced by certain 
passages of Scripture to maintain with Ptolemy that the 
earth is the centre, and that all the heavenly bodies revolve 
about it daily in circular orbit. t 

Note.— Kepler, a pupil of Tycho, adopted the Copernican the- 
ory. His three laws were : 1. Planets revolve in ellipses, with the 
sun at one focus. 2. A line connecting the centre of the earth with 
tiie centre of the sun passes over equal spaces in equal times. 8. 
The squares of the times of revolution of the planets about the sun 
are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the 
sun. 

Query.— What discoveries did Galileo make? What recanta- 
tion was he obliged to make? Name some of the northern constdr 
.ntions— the southern ones. 

14. Name the first magnitude stars. 

Ans. — The twenty brightest stars in the heavens are as 
follows : 

Sirius, in the constellation Oanis Major. 

Canopus, " '■ " Argo. 

Alpha, '■ Centaur. 

Arcturus, " " Bo5tes. 



80 Dime Question Books. 

Rlgel, in the constellation Orion. 

Capella, " " Auriga. 

Vega, " Lyra. 

Procyon, " " Canis Minor. 

Betelgeuse, " " Orion. 

Achernar, " Er id anus. 

Aldebaran, " " Taurus. 

Beta Centauri, " Centaur. 

Alpha Crucis, " " Crux. 

Antares, " " Scorpion. 

Altair, " Aquiia. 

Spica, " i( Virgo. 

Fomalhaut, " " Piscis Australia. 

Beta Crucis, " " Crux. 

Pollux, " " Gemini. 

Kegulus, " " Leo. 

Note.— Although the stars, and the various constellations, re- 
tain the same relative positions that they did in ancient times, they 
are, nevertheless, in motion; and in some of them nearest to U3 
this motion, called proper motion, is very apparent, and it has 
been measured. Thus Arcturus is travelling at the rate of at least 
54 miles a second, or three times faster than our earth travels 
around the sun. Our Sun is approaching the constellation Her- 
cules at the rate of 4 miles a second, carrying its system of planets, 
including our Earth, with it. 

15. How many motions has the earth ? Give 
velocity of each. 

Ans.— The earth has two motions— the motion of the 
earth in space about the sun at the rate of about 1,000 miles 
per minute; and the diurnal revolutions of the earth on its 
own axis. Different points upon the earth's surface revolve 
with different velocities. At the poles the speed is noth- 
ing, while at the equator it is over 1,000 miles per hour. 
At Quito, the rate is about 1,038 miles per hour, at the 



ASTBONOMY. 81 

mouth of the St, Lawrence about 450 miles. In latitude 
40° and 41°, the speed is respectively 795 and 780 miles 
per hour, 

Query.— Why do we not perceive this wonderful velocity? What 
would be the result of a sudden cessation of the earth's rotation? 
If the rate of rotation were to increase ? What are apparent 
motions? Haw caused? 

16. What is the Milky Way f 

Ans.-— Winding among the stars is a beautiful belt of 
pale light spanning the sky, and frequently so situated as 
to divide the heavens into two nearly equal portions. It 
Is composed of stars^so faint, and apparently so near 
together, that the eye can only perceive a dim, continuous 
glitter. Of the 20,000,000 stars visible in powerful tele- 
scopes, at least 18,000,000 lie in and near the milky way. 

17. What are the classes of stars ? 

Ans.=— Double, Multiple, and Variable. Stars which 
appear single to the naked eye, appear double, triple, and 
quadruple, and, in some instances, the number of stars 
revolving round a common centre is even greater when 
viewed through a telescope, A beautiful star in the con- 
stellation of the Lyra appears as a faint single star. An 
opera-glass suffices to show it double, and a powerful 
instrument reveals the fact that each star composing this 
double is itself double; hence it is known as "the Double- 
double." 

Note.— More than 6,000 douhle stars are now known, and of 
these motion has already been detected in nearly 700, the motion 
In some cases being very rapid, The brilliancy in the component 
stars varies so that a star of the first magnitude may have a com- 
panion of the tenth, twelfth or fourteenth magnitude. Sirius has, 
at least, one such companion. Stars in which the variation in the 



82 Dime, Question Books. 

light is, as it is generally, slow, regular, and within certain limits, 
are.called variables. 

Query.— What are physical couples f optical couples 1 What 
are new stars, lost stars, and temporary stars f Name some of the 
red, blue, green, yellow, and white stars. Do the colors of the 
stars change? What are occults f What are star-clusters? What 
is the Pleiades? 

18. What are the classes of nebulae ? 

Ans.— 1, Irregular nebulse. 2. Ring nebulae and ellip- 
tical nebulae. 3. Spiral, or whirlpool nebulas. 4. Plane- 
tary nebulae. 5. Nebulae surrounding stars. Some of the 
irregular nebulae— those in the constellations Orion and 
Andromeda, for example, — are visible to the naked eye on 
a dark night. 

Note.— The nebulae vary slightly in color from a greenish 
white tinge to a planetary and bluish light. An idea of the extreme 
faintness of the more distant nebul sb may be gathered from the 
fact that the light of a single sperm candle viewed at the distance 
of a quarter of a mile is 20,000 times more brilliat than the nebula. 
A true 7iebula is a mass of glowing or ineandescent gas. 

19. What is the " nebular hypothesis " f 

Ans. — It supposes that all the matter which makes up 
the sun and the bodies revolving around it was at one 
time in a gaseous state, and whirling around a centre. By 
its centrifugal force, rings of matter were thrown off from 
the outside, which, obeying the law of attraction, formed 
into globes. These globes became the planets, the earth 
among the number. 

20. Of what is the " solar system " composed 3 

Ans.— It consists of: 1. The sun — the centre; 2, the 
major planets — Vulcan (undetermined), Mercury, Venus, 
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune; 3, the 



Astronomy. 83 

minor planets, at present 140 in number; 4, the satellites 
or moons, 20 in number, which revolve around the differ- 
ent planets; 5, meteors and shooting stars; 6, nine comets 
whose orbits have been computed, and over 1,200 of which 
but little is known; 7, the zodiacal light* 

21. Describe the Sun. 

Ans.— The centre of the universe, whose beam comes to 
us as simply motion of ether- waves, yet it is the grand 
source of beauty and power. Its heat, light and chemical 
force work everywhere the miracles of life and motion. 
The light of the sun is equal to 5,563 wax candles held at 
the distance of one foot from the eye. Its diameter is 853,- 
380 miles. More than 1,200,000 Earths would be required 
to make one Sun. Astronomers express this by saying 
that the volume of the sun is 1,200,000 times greater than 
than that of the earth, but as the matter of which the sun 
is composed weighs only one quarter as much, bulk for 
bulk, as do the materials of which the earth is made up, 
taken together, 300,000 Earths only would be required in 
one scale of a balance to weigh down the sun in the other. 
That is, the mass, or weight of the sun, is 300,000 times 
greater than that of our earth. 

Note.— The average distance of the sun from the earth is about 
91,500,000 miles. It seems a little larger to us in winter than in 
summer, as we are 3,000 miles nearer to it. The rotation of the 
sun on its axis was discovered by observing the spots on its sur- 
face. 

22. What is meant by the plane of the Eclijh 
tic? 

Ans. — Imagine the earth floating around the sun on a 
boundless ocean, both sun and earth being half immersed 



84: Dime Question Books. 

in it. This level, called the plane of the Ecliptic, is used 
by astronomers in precisely the same way as we common- 
ly use the sea level. A mountain is so high above the level 
of the sea. Astronomers say that such *a star is so high 
above the plane of the ecliptic. 

Query.— How many motions has the sun? What are sun spots? 
How many motions have they? What is the meaning of umbra and 
penumbra f What i s the protosphere ? nucleus ? 

Note.— The spots on the sim appear to have been noticed as 
early as 807 A, D., although the telescope was not invented until 
1610, and Galileo discovered the solar spots in the following year. 

23. What are the Equinoxes ? 

Am— The points of intersection of the ecliptic and 
equator. When the sun occupies these positions in spring 
and autumn of the northern hemisphere, there is equal 
day and night all over the world, a small circle near each 
pole excepted, The poles of the ecliptic are the points where 
the axis of the earth's orbit meets the celestial sphere. 

24. What is the celestial sphere ? 

Ans. — It is the blue arch of the sky, as it appears to be 
spread above us. The sun appears to be about half a de- 
gree in diameter, so that 860 disks like the sun, laid side 
by side, would make a half circle of the celestial sphere. 

Note.— The apparent yearly motion of the sun is so important 
that astronomers map out the celestial sphere by a second method, 
in order to indicate his motion more easily: for as the plane of the 
celestial equator, like the plane of the terrestrial equator, does 
not coincide with the plane of the ecliptic, the sun's distance from 
the celestial equator varies every minute. To get over this diffi- 
culty, they make of the plane of the' ecliptic a sort of second celes- 
tial equator. They apply the term celestial latitude to angular 
distances from it to the poles of the heavens, which are 90 degrees 
from it north and south. They apply the term celestial longitude 



Astronomy. 85 

to the angular distance— reckoned on the plane of the ecliptic— 
from the position occupied by the sun at the vernal equinox, reck- 
oning from left to right up to 360 degrees. Tins latitude and lon- 
gitude may be either heliocentric or gmcentric : that is, reckoned 
from the centre, either of the sun or oi the earth, respectively. 

25. What is the Zodiac? 

Ans.— -It is a belt of the celestial sphere, 8° on each 
side of the ecliptic, divided into twelve equal parts of 30° 
each. It is of very high antiquity, having been in use 
among the ancient Hindoos and Egyptians. 

Note.— These signs, with their symbols, are as follows: 

Spring Signs. Summer Signs. Autnma Signs, Winter SignB, 

f Aries. © Cancer. ^ Libra v3 Capricornus. 

b Taurus. SI Leo. tie. Scorpio. & Aquarius, 

n Gemini, tij, Virgo. $ Sagittarius, x Pisces. 

At the time these signs were adopted, the sun entered the con- 
stellation Aries at the vernal equinox, and occupied, in succession, 
the constellations bearing the same names; but at present, owing 
to the precession of the equinoxes, the signs no longer correspond 
with the constellations, which must not therefore be confounded 
with them. 

26. What is the Zodiacal Light t 

Ans.— A faint light, shaped like a sugar-loaf, is some- 
times seen stretching obliquely upward in the heavens, 
from 70 to 100 degrees, from that part of the horizon 
where the sun is about rising or had just set. This phe- 
nomenon is known as the "zodiacal light." It is brightest 
and most distinctly defined in tropical regions, where it is 
visible most of the time. In high latitudes, it is seldom 
clearly seen, except during March and April just after sun- 
set, and in September and October immediately before 
dawn. There are various theories as to its Ollgifl, but XhQ 
cause of the zodiacal light is unknown. 

27. T7hat are the classes of planets? 



86 Dime Question Books, 

Ans.— Inferior and Superior. The first, or those which 
travel around the sun within the earth's orhit, are Mercury 
and Venus. And the latter, outside of the earth's orbit, 
are Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. 

Note.— Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, being 
visible to the naked eye, were known to the ancients. Uranus 
was discovered i» 1781 by Sir William Herschel, from whom it was 
first commonly called Herschel. Its discoverer gave it the name 
of Georgium Sidus, in honor of King George III. Both these 
names were discarded for the mythological one by which it is at 
present known. The first of the asteroids, Ceres, was discovered 
in 1801 by the Sicilian astronomer, Piazzi. Pallas was added to 
the list in 1804, Juno in 1804, Vesta in 1807, and the remainder since 
1844. Neptune was discovered in 1846, by Dr. Galle, of Berlin. It 
was first called Le Verrier, in honor of an eminent French astron- 
omer, who, by a sertes of calculations, established the fact that 
there was a more distant planet than Uranus, and instructed Dr. 
Galle in what part of the heavens to look for it. 

•28. What are the " conjunctions f " 

Ans.— When an inferior planet is in a line between the 
earth and sun, it is said to be in inferior conjunction 
with the sun: when it is in the same line, but beyond the 
sun, it is said te be in superior conjunction. When a 
superior planet is on the opposite side of the sun, — that is, 
when the sun is between us and it,— we say it is in con- 
junction. 

29. What is " opposition f " 

Ans. — When a superior planet is in the same straight 
line, but with the earth in the middle, we say it is in 
opposition, because it is then in the part of the heavens 
opposite to the sun. 

60. What is a " transit?" 



Astronomy. 87 

Ans — The passage of an inferior planet across flie sun's 
disk. 

81. What is " occuliationf " 

Ans. — When a planet or star is hid from the view of 
an observer on the earth, by the interposition of some 
other heavenly body, it is said to suffer occitltatton, or to be 
eclipsed. 

Query.— What is the meaning of horizon, zenith, and nadir? 
What is the sensible horizon ? Define the rational horizon. 

32. Describe the Moon. 

Ans. — The earth is attended by one satellite, called the 
Moon, — a beautiful orb which ''rules the night" with its 
gentle brilliancy, produces in part the tides, and sensibly 
affects the earth's motions by its attraction. Its diameter 
is 2,165 miles, but its apparent size is almost equal to the 
sun's in consequence of its nearness to our planet. Its 
density is not much more than one half that of the earth, 
and it contains about one-eightieth as much matter. 

S3. What are its motions ? - 

Ans.— It is about 240,000 miles from the earth, and 
revolves about the latter so as to reach the same point rel- 
atively to the fixed stars in 27 days, 8 hours. To reach 
the same point relative to the sun loquires 29 days, 13 
hours, since the earth has itself meanwhile advanced in its 
orbit. 

34. What is the meaning of Perigee and 
Apogee ? 

Aks. — When nearest the earth, the moon is said to be 



88 Dime Question Books. 

in her perigee, and when farthest from it, in. her apogee. The 
terms perigee and apogee (which mean near Hie earth, and 
away from the earth) are also applied to the apparent posi- 
tion of the sun. When the earth is at its perihslion, the 
sun is said to be in perigee; and when the earth is at its 
aphelion, the sun is in apogee. 

Note.— The tides are caused by a great wave, which, raised 
by the moon's attraction, follows her in her course around the 
earth. The sun, also, aids somewhat in producing this effect; but 
as the moon is 400 times nearer the earth her influence is far greater. 

35. What is meant by the phases of the moon ? 

Ans. —The moon revolves around the earth from west 
to east in about 29-|- days, and the changes of her illumin- 
ated surface from a thin crescent to a circle, and vice versa, 
are called its phases. These changes depend upon the 
position of the moon relative to the earth and sun, for it 
is only the half of the moon facing the sun that is illum- 
inated, and the whole of this portion can be seen from the 
earth only when the san, earth and moon are in a straight 
line. The plane of her orbit does not coincide with the 
ecliptic, but is inclined to it- at an angle of 5° 8' 47.9", and 
intersects it in two opposite points called nodes. The 
"ascending node" is the point at which the moon pene- 
trates the plane of the earth's orbit in passing from south 
to north. The "descending node" is crossed by the moon in 
returning south. If the moon happens to be new or full&t 
either of these points, in one case we shall have an eclipse 
of the sun, and in the other an eclipse of the moon. If 
the moon's motion were performed in the plane of the eclip- 
tic, we should have a solar eclipse at every new moon, and 
a lunar eclipse at every full moon. When the moon is 
not quite at a node at the time it is new or full, it is only 
partially eclipsed. 

86. What is quadrature f 



Astronomy. 89 

Ans.— It is the position of one heavenly body in respect 
to another when distant from it 90° The moon is in her 
quadrature when at an equal distance from the points of 
"conjunction" and " opposition," 

37. Has the moon an atmosphere ? 

Am— Two reasons have been given why the moon has 
no atmosphere: 1, Because we never see any clouds there, 
and, 2, because when the moon's motion causes it to travel 
over a star, or to occult it, as it is called, the star disappears 
at once, and does not seem to linger on the edge, a3 it 
would do if there were an atmosphere; but during the 
recent total eclipse of the sun (May 17th, 1881,) the savants 
of the French expedition claim to have discovered a lunar 
atmosphere, 

38. Is the moon inhabited '? 

Am— This question is often asked in reference to all 
of the heavenly bodies, but no evidences of inhabitants 
have ever been discovered, even in the moon, which is 
the nearest to us. Nothing, however, seems to be created 
without an object, and if the planets are inhabited, it must 
be by creatures constituted very differently from the hu- 
man race. Surrounded by entirely different circumstances 
as regards temperature, gravity, atmosphere, etc., the 
inhabitants of the different planets must be races distinct 
from each other. 

39* What is an eclipse of the sun or moon? 

Ans. — An eclipse of the sun is caused by the moon 
passing between it and the earth, andinterceptiug its rays. 
When the moon intervenes between the sun and the earth 
at such a distance from the latter as to make her apparent 



90 Dime Question Books. 

diameter less than the sun's, a singular phenomenon is 
exhibited. The whole disk of the sun is obscured, except 
a narrow ring around the outside encircling the darkened 
centre, This is called an Annular Eclipse, from the Latin 
annulus, a ring. An eclipse of the moon is caused bj r the 
earth getting between it and the sun. 

Note.— The moon also turns on its axis in exactly the same 
time that it takes to revolve around the earth, and in the same 
direction. The consequence is that she always presents the same 
side to the earth. Nearly one-half of our fair attendant we never 
see, and to the inhabitants of half her surface, if she has any, we 
are invisible. 

40. Describe the appearance of Mercury, and 
where seen. 

Ans.— Mercury is nearest to the sun of any of the defi- 
nitely known planets. Under favorable circumstances, it 
may be seen, at certain times of the year, for a few min- 
utes after sunset or before sunrise, twinkling with a pale, 
rosy light. As the evening star, its elevation increases 
daily, but never exceeds 80° Its mean distance from the 
sun is 35,000,000 miles. Its diameter is about 3,000 miles, 
and it revolves about the sun at the rate of 30 miles per 
second, completing the revolution in 88 days. Its volume 
is about one twentieth that of the earth. 

41. What is Yenns? 

Ans. —The most brilliant of all the planets. So bright 
is Venus that it is sometimes visible at mid-day to the 
naked eye, and in the absence of the moon casts a percepti- 
ble shadow. When visible before sunrise, it was called 
by the ancients Phosphorus, Lucifer, or the morning star, 
and when it shone in the evening after sunset, Hesperus, 
Vesper, or the evening star. It presents the same appear 



Astronomy. 9 1 

ance as Mercury. Its diameter is 7,600 miles, and its 
mean distance from the sun is about 66,000,000. The vol- 
ume of this planet is about four-fifths that of the earth, 
while the density is about the same. It completes its 
revolution around the sun in 225 days, at the mean rate of 
22 mile3 a second. 

Note.— The orbit of Mercury is the most eccentric of any of 
the eight principal planets, so that although when in perihelion 
it approaches to within 28,000,000 miles, in aphelion it speeds away 
15,000,000 miles farther, or to the distance of 43,000,000 miles. The 
distance of Venus only varies at aphelion and perihelion within the 
limits of half a million miles. 

42. What is the meaning of eccentricity? 

Aks. — The eccentricity of an orbit is the distance of 
either focus from the centre of the orbit. Greek, (&Jc) 
from, and (Jcivrpov) the centre. The eccentricity of the 
earth's orbit is about 1% millions of miles. 

Note.— As the axis of Venus is very much inclined from a per- 
pendicular, its seasons are similar to those of Mercury. The tem- 
perate and torrid zones overlap each other, the polar regions hav- 
ing alternately at one solstice a torrid temperature, and at the 
other a prolonged arctic cold. The inequality of the nights is 
very marked. The heat and light are double those of the earth, 
while the circular form of its orbit gives nearly an equal length to 
its four seasons. 



43, What would be the result if the axis of 
the earth were perpendicular to the ecliptic ? 

Ans. — The sun would always appear to move through 
the equinoctial: that is, those parts of the earth which lie 
under the equator would be constantly opposite to the sun; 
and as, in that case, the sun would at all times of the 
year be vertical to those places equally distant from both 



92 Dime Question Books. 

poles, so the light and heat of the sun would be dispersed 
with perfect uniformity toward each pole; we should have 
no variety of seasons; day and night would be of the 
same length, and the heat of the sun would be of the same 
intensity throughout the year. There would be near the 
equator a fierce torrid heat, while north and south the 
climate would melt away into temperate spring, and, lastly, 
into the rigors of a perpetual winter, 

44. Give a description of Mars. 

Ans, —It is the first of the superior planets, and the one 
most like the earth. It appears to the naked eye as a 
bright red star, rarely scintillating, and shining with a 
steady light, which distinguishes it from the fixed stars. 
Its ruddy appearance has led to its being celebrated among 
all nations. The Jews gave it the appellation of "blazing/* 
and it bore in other languages a similar name. At conjunc- 
tion, its apparent diameter is only about 4"; but' once in 
two years it comes into opposition with the sun, when its 
diameter increases to 30". Mars not only has land and 
water and snow like us, but it has clouds and mists, and 
these have been watched at different times. The land is 
generally reddish when the planet's atmosphere is clear; 
this is due to the absorption of the atmosphere, as is the 
color of the setting sun with us. The water appears of a 
greenish tinge. 

Note.— Mars revolves about the sun at a mean distance of 
about 140,000,000 miles, completing the revolution in 686 clays, with 
an average velocity of 15 miles per second. Its diameter is a little 
less than 5,000 miles, while its volume is about one-fourth that of 
the earth. 

45. What is the largest planet? 

Ans.— Jupiter. It is bright enough at times, in spite 
of its great distance, to cast a shadow like Venus, and ia 



Astronomy. 93 

surrounded by an atmosphere so densely laden with clouds 
that of the actual planet itself we know nothing. "What 
are generally known as the belts of Jupiter are dusky 
streaks- which cross a brighter background in directions 
generally parallel to the planet's equator. Its mean dis- 
tance from the sun is 475,000,000 miles, and its velocity is 
about 500 miles per minute. The year at Jupiter contains 
4,332 days. Its diameter is about 88,000 miles, and its 
volume is 1,400 times that of the earth. 

46. When, by whom, and by 'what process, 
was the velocity of light ascertained ? 

Ans.— It was first found in 1676 by the Danish astron- 
omer Roemer, by observations of the eclipses of Jupiter's 
moons. When the earth w r as nearest to Jupiter, the 
eclipses appeared about 8£ minutes too soon for the calcu- 
lations, and when the earth was most remote from Jupiter, 
they were about 8£ minutes too late. Roemer concluded 
the reason to be that it required about 17 minutes for light 
from the planet to traverse the diameter of the earth's orbit, 
which measured the difference of the distances of the earth 
from Jupiter. If the diameter of the earth's orbit is 185,- 
000,000 miles, that divided by 17 X 60 = 181,372 miles a 
second. Bradley and others have verified the results, 
though some astronomers place the orbit at 182,000,000 
miles, and deduce by a rule of three problem that light 
travels about 186,000 miles a second. 

Note.— As the axis of Jupiter is but slightly inclined from a 
perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, there is but little difference 
In the length of its days and nights, winch are each of about five 
hours' duration. At the poles, the sun is visible for nearly six 
years, and then remains set for the same length of time. The sea- 
sons vary bat slightly. Summer reigns near the equator, while the 
temperate regions enjcy perpetual spring. 



\)± Dime Question Books. 

47. What is the planet next in size to Jupi- 
ter? 

Ans. — Saturn, which is not only belted like Jupiter, 
but is surrounded by a series of rings, one of which, the 
inner one, is transparent. It is to the rings that most of 
the interest of this planet attaches. We may well imag- 
ine how sorely puzzled the earlier observers, with their 
very imperfect telescopes were by these strange append- 
ages. The planet at first was supposed to resemble a vase, 
hence the name Ansae, or handles, given to the rings in 
certain positions of the planet. It was next supposed to 
consist of three bodies, the largest one in the middle. The 
true nature of the rings was discovered by Huyghens in 
1655. 

Note.— This planet revolves about the sun at a mean distance 
of 872,000,000 miles, completing the revolution in 10,759 days. Its 
diameter is about 72,000 miles, and its volume nearly 750 times that 
of the earth. The light and heat of the sun at Saturn are only 
one one-hundredth that which we receive. The axis of Saturn is 
inclined from a perpendicular to the plane of its orbit about 31°. 
The seasons, therefore, are similar to those on the earth, but on a 
larger scale, each of them lasting more than seven of our years. 

48. What is said of Uranus? 

Ans. — It may be seen by a person of strong eyesight in 
a perfectly dark sky, if he previously knows its exact posi- 
tion among the stars. It is very faint, and this is due to 
its great distance from the earth. Were it as near the sun, 
it would appear twice as large as Jupiter, It revolves 
about the sun in 84 of our years, or 31,000 days. There 
being no spots on the surtace, we are unable to fix the 
period of its revolution on its axis. Its distance from the 
sun is 1,754,000,000 miles, while its diameter is about 
S3, 000 miles. 



ASTKONOMY, 05 

Note.— We know but little of the seasons of Uranus. Since its 
axis lies in the plane of its orbit, the sun winds in a spiral form 
around the whole planet. The light and heat are only three-thou- 
sandths of that which we receive ; the light is about the quantity 
which would be afforded by 300 full moons. The inhabitants of 
Uranus can see Saturn, and perhaps Jupiter, but none of the plan- 
ets within the orbit of the latter. 



49. Describe Neptune. 

Ans.— It is .the far-off sentinel at the very out posts of 
the solar system, being the most distant planet of which 
we have any knowledge. It is invisible to the naked eye, 
and appears in the telescope as a star of the eighth mag- 
nitude. Its discovery is one of the greatest triumphs of 
which science can boast. Owing to its great distance 
from the sun, nothing is known of its physical peculiari- 
ties. It revolves about the sun at a mean distance of 
2,750,000,000 miles, though its motion in its orbit is the 
slowest of any of the planets, being only 12,000 miles 
per hour. 

Note.— Its annual revolution is completed in 165 terrestrial 
years, or 60,000 days. Its diameter is about 87,000 miles, while its 
volume is nearly 100 times that of the earth. As the inclination of 
its axis is unknown, nothing can be ascertained concerning its 
seasons. Its density is a little less than that of water, or about 
the same as that of Uranus. 

50. How many moons have the planets ? 

Ans. — The earth has one. Jupiter has four, and all but 
one of these satellites exceed our earth in size. The larg- 
est would sometimes be visible to the naked eye as a very 
faint star, were it not lost in the superior brightness of its 
planet. It has been inferred from the fact that their light 
varies, and that they are always brightest and dullest hi 
the same positions with regard to Jupiter and the sun, that 



96 Djme Question Books. 

they rotate on their axes in the sarne time as they revolve 
around Jupiter. Three of them are totally eclipsed during 
every revolution by the long shadow -which the planet 
casts, and the fourth is very often eclipsed. Saturn is 
surrounded by eight moons, seven of which were known 
for GO years before the eighth was discovered. The larg- 
est of them has a diameter about half as large again as 
our moon. Mars has two moons. Uranus is attended by 
four moons, of which little is known, except the curious 
fact that their orbits are nearly perpendicular, to the plana 
of the earth's orbit, and that they move from east to west, 
unlike the satellites of the other planets. Neptune has at 
least one moon, distant from it about as far as ours from 
us. The revolution of this about the planet, which is 
accomplshed in six days, has furnished materials for cal- 
culating the mass of Neptune. 

Query.— When cannot Jupiter be seen? How are Saturn's rings 
prevented from falling in upon the planet? How can Jupiter be 
eclipsed? Which one of the planets shines with a *' steady, pale, 
yellow light"? 

51. What is the comparative size of the 
? 



_ Ans.-~ -For illustration, taking a globe some two feet in 
diameter to represent the Sun, Mercury would now be 
proportionately represented by a grain of mustard seed, 
revolving in a circle 164 feet in diameter; Venus, a pea, in 
a circle of 284 feet in diameter; the Earth also a pea, at a 
distance of 215 feet; Mars, a rather large pin's head, in a 
Circle of 654 feet; the smaller planets by grains of sand, in 
orbits of from 1,000 to 1,200 feet; Jupiter, a moderate sized 
orange, in a circle nearly half a mile across; Saturn, a 
small orange, in a circle of four fifths of a mile; Uranus, a 
full-sized cherry, or small plum, upon the circumference 



ASTBONOMY. 



97 



of a circle more than a mile and a half; and Neptune, a 
good-sized plum, in a circle of about two miles and a half 
in diameter. 

Note.— As some difference exists in the statements of various 
authorities regarding the time of revolution, distances, etc., two 
leading tables are presented. 
From Hersehel's'' Outlines of Astronomy" (1838): 



Name. 


Distance from 
Sun in miles. 


Yr. expressed 
in Earth's d'ys. 


Diameter in 
miles. 


Mercury 


88,890,000 

68,770,000 

95,298,000 

145,205,000 

$ from 210 to301 

I millions. 

495,815,500 

909,029,700 

1,828,048,000 

2,802,404,000 


83 

225 

S65& 

687 

from 1,191 

to 2,051 

4,333 

10,759 

80,687 

60,128 


3,TS3 




8,108 


Earth 


7,S26 




4,546 
esti'tedatfrom 
100 to 1,000. 

90,734 


Jupiter.... 




76,791 


Uranus 


85.307 


Neptune 


89,793 







From Lockyer's " Elementary Lessons in Astronomy (1876) : 

Distance In Period of revolution Diameter 
miles. around the sun. In miles. 

D. H. M # 

Mercury 85,392,000 87 23 15 2,962. 

Venus.. 6(5,130,000 224 18 48 7,510. 

Earth 91,43 V'OO 865 6 9 7,901. 

Mars 139,312.000 €86 23 81 4,000. 

Jupiter 475,H93.<00 4.332 14 2 85,390. 

Baturn 872,135.000 10,759 5 16 71,904. 

Uranus 1.752,851,000 80,686 17 21 83,024. 

Neptune .....2,746,271,000 60,118 36 620. 

It is to he remembered that as the orbits are elliptical, the plan- 
ets are sometimes nearer to the sun than at other times. 



62. WhatisBode'slaw? 

Ans — If we write down 

3 6 13 21 43 03 

and add 4 to each, we get 

4 7 10 16 23 53 100 

and this series of numbers represents very nearly the dis- 
tances of the ancient planets from the sun, as follows:— 



93 Dxmb Question Books, 

Mercury, Tenus, Earth, Mars, — - — -, Jupiter, Saturn. 
This singular connection was discovered by Titius, and is 
known by the name of Bade's Law, The fifth term has 
apparently no representative among the planets. This fact 
acted so strongly on the imagination of Kepler that he 
boldly placed an undiscovered one in the gap. Up to the 
time of the discovery of Uranus, the undiscovered planet 
did not reveal itself. 

Note.— When it was found, however, that the actual position 
of Uranus was very well represented by the next term of the 
series, 196, it was determined to make an organized search for it, 
and for this purpose a society of astronomers was formed, the 
zodiac was divided into 24 zones, each zone being confided to a 
member of the^ society. On the first day of the present century, a 
planet was discovered and named Ceres, which, curiously enough, 
filled up the gap, 

53. Which of the asteroids can we see ? 

Ans.— None of these planets, except occasionally Cere3 
and Vesta, can be seen by the naked eye. Their chief 
characteristic is, that the largest minor planet is but 223 
miles in diameter, and many of the smaller ones are less 
than 50. 

Note.— The planet nearest the sun i9 (8) Flora, whose journey 
around the sun is performed in 854 years, at a mean distance of 
201,000,000 miles; the most distant one is (65) Maximiliana, whose 
year is as long as 6% of ours, and whose mean distance is 813,000,- 
000 miles. 

54. What is the supposed origin of the aste- 
roids ? 

Ans.— It has been suggested that they may be the frag- 
ments of a larger planet, \yhich some believe to have 
originally revolved between Mara aad Jupiter, and by 



Astronomy. 99 

some tremendous catastrophe to have burst into frag- 
ments. 

Note.— The asteroids are comparatively so diminutive that 
the force of gravity on their surfaces must be very small. A man 
placed on one o. c them would spring with ease sixty feet high, and 
sustain no greater shock in his descent than he does on the earth 
from leaping a yard. On such planets giants may exist ; and those 
enormous animals which here require the buoyant power of water 
to counteract their weight, may there inhabit the land. 



55. Which one has a hazy appearance ? 

Ans.— (2) Pallas; and it is supposed from this, that the 
planet is surrounded by a dense atmosphere. This may 
also be the case with the others, as their colors are not the 
same. There are also evidences that some among them 
rotate on their axes like the larger planets, 

56. What are Comets? 

Ans. Bodies, probably white-hot, shining by their own 
light, which perform their journeys around the sun in every 
plane, in orbits which are either ellipses, parabolas, or 
hyperbolas. They differ very much in appearance; but, 
for the most part, they consist of a nucleus, which is a very 
bright spot, apparently denser than the other portions; 
an envelope, or coma (hair), which is a luminous fog-like 
cover surrounding the nucleus; and a tail, which appears 
to be an expansion of the envelope produced by solar heat. 

Note.— The tails of different comets differ greatly in shape 
and extent. In some, this appendage is entirely wanting; in 
others, it has been found to extend 112,000,00? miles. Several tails 
have been exhibited at the same time : the comet of 1744 threw 
out no less than six— like an enormous fan, over the heavens. 
Even in the same comet the tail keeps changing, being largest 
when near the sun, and diminishing as it recedes from that body. 
In 1853, the bright star Arcturns was seen through the tail of 



100 Dime Question Books, 

Donati's comet, at a place where the tail was 90,000 miles In diam- 
eter. It is worthy of remark that in the year of the Norman in- 
vasion, 1066, a fine comet with three tails appeared, which in the 
Norman chronicle is given as evidence of William's divine right 
to invade England. 

Query.— When is the next return of Halley's comet? How 
many tails had the comet of 1823? What are short-period and 
long-period comets? Which comet divided itself into two por- 
tions? When was DeVlco's comet last observed? How near did 
the comet of 1680 approach the sun? 



57. What are Meteors ? 

Ans,— -Bodies which are called, according to their brill- 
iancy, meteors, bolides, or falling or sJiooting stars, travers- 
ing the heavens in elliptic orbits around the sun. They 
are hot scattered uniformly in the space comprised by the 
Solar System, but are collected into groups, and what we 
term a shower of meteors is due to the earth breaking 
through one of these groups. It has been calculated that 
the average number of meteors which traverse the atmos- 
phere daily, and which are large enough to be visible to 
the naked eye on a dark, clear night, is no less than 
7,500,000; and if we include meteors which would be visi- 
ble in a telescope, this number will have to be increased 
to 400,000,000. JErolites are those stony masses which 
fall to the earth. 

Historical Note.— On April 26, 18^3, a brilliant fire-baU 
(meteor) was seen traversing Normandy with great velocity, and 
some moments after, frightful explosions, like the noise of can- 
non or roll of musketry, were heard coming from a single black 
cloud hanging in a clear sky; they were prolonged for five or six 
minutes. These discharges were followed by a great shower of 
stones, some weighing over 21 pounds. One of the earliest accounts 
of star-showers is that which relates how, in 472, the sky at Con- 
stantinople appeared to be alive with flying stars and meteors. 
In some Eastern annals we are told that in October, 1202, ".the 



Astronomy. 101 

stars appeared like waves upon the sky. They flew about like 

grasshoppers, and were dispersed Srom left to right." 

58. What is a sidereal day ? 

Ans. — Star time, or it is the exact interval of time In 
which the earth revolves on its axis. It is found by mark- 
ing two successive passages of a star across the meridian 
of any place. This is so absolutely uniform that the 
length of the sidereal day has not varied one-hundredth of 
a second in 2,000 years. 

59. What is a solar day % 

Ans.-— Sun time, or the interval between two successive 
passages of the sun across the meridian of any place. 

60. What causes the difference between a 
sidereal and a solar year ? 

Ans.— If the earth were stationary in its orbit, the solar 
day would be of the same length as the sidereal ; but while 
the earth is turning around on its axis, it is going forward 
at the rate of 380° in a year, or about 1° per day. There- 
fore, when the earth has made a complete revolution, it 
must perform apart of another revolution through this 
additional degree, in order to bring the same meridian 
vertically under the sun. One degree of diurnal revolution 
is about equal to four minutes of time; hence the solar day 
is about four minutes longer than the sidereal day. 

61. What is the distance of the fax^d stars ? 

Ans.— The distance of the fixed stars is absolutely in- 
conceivable. None of them can be less than 19,200,000,- 
000,000 miles from the earth, while the greater part are far 
more remote. Their diameters are found to be enormous, 



102 Dims Question Books. 

in one case not less than 200,000,000 miles. Sirius, if set 
in the place of our sun, would look 125 times as large as 
he, and give us 125 times as much light. Trillions of 
miles away, as it is, it dazzles the eye when seen through a 
powerful telescope. 

Note.— The idea of distance is often best conveyed by some 
every-day illustration. When the poet wrote, " Sic itur ad antra" 
—Thus one travels to the stars— he was not thinking of railroads. 
But they are familiar enough to us. In a lecture by Dr. William 
Huggens, the eminent English astronomer, as to the results of 
spectrum analysis as applied to the heavenly bodies, this striking 
statement was used to give some faint notion of the enormous dis- 
tance of the stars : 

"The earth's orbit," said the lecturer, "which is more than one 
hundred and ninety million miles in diameter, at most of the stars 
dwindles to a mere point, and has no sensible size whatever. If 
you suppose a railroad from the earth to the nearest fixed star, 
which is supposed to be twenty trillions of miles from us, and if 
you suppose the price of the fare to he one penny for every hun- 
dred miles,— not, mind, a penny per mile,— then, if you take a mass 
of gold to the ticket office equal to the national debt (three billion, 
eight hundred million dollars), it would not be sufficient to pay for 
a ticket to the nearest fixed star. And I think I should not be 
wrong in saying there are stars so far off that, at the price of one 
penny for every hundred miles, the whole treasure of the earth 
would not be sufficient to pay for a ticket." 

62. Do we ever see the stars ? 

Ans,— "We do not. This assertion seems almost para- 
doxical, hut it is strictly true. The stars are so far re- 
moved from us that we see only the light they send, but 
not the surface of the planets themselves. 

63. How is it that the days and nights are not 
always equal ? 

Ans,— The days and nights are equal all over the world 



ASTEOHOMY. 103 

on the 22d of March and the 22d of September, which 
dates are called the vernal and autumnal equinoxes for that 
very reason — equinox being the Latin for eqnal night. If 
we were living in Greenland at the spring equinox, we 
should find the Arctic circle half in light and half in shade. 
One half of the twenty-four hours (the time of one rota- 
tion), therefore, will be spent in sunshine, the other in 
8hade. Gradually, however, as we approach the summer 
solstice (going from left to right), we find the circle coming 
more and more into the light, in consequence of the incli- 
nation of the axis, until, when we arrive at the solstice, in 
spite of the earth's rotation, we cannot get out of Hie light. 
At this time, we see the midnight sun due north i The 
sun, in fact, does not set. The solstice passed, we ap- 
proach the autumnal equinox, when again we shall find 
the day and night equal, as we did at the vernal equinox. 
But when we come to the winter solstice, we get no more 
midnight suns: all the circle is now situated in the shaded 
portion; hence, again, in spite of the earth's rotation, we 
cannot get out of the darkness, and we do not see the sun 
even at noonday. 

64. To what is the sun's heat equal ? 

Ans — The heat thrown out from every square yard of 
its surface is as great as that which would be produced by 
burning six tons of coal on it each hour. The surface of 
the sun contains 2,284,000,000,OCO square miles, and there 
are 3,097,600 square yards in each square mile. How 
many tons of coal must be burnt, therefore, in an hour, to 
represent the sun's heat? 

64. To how mauy full moons is the sun's 
light equal ? 



104 Dime Question Books. 

Ans.— It would require 800,000 full moons to produce 
a day as brilliant as one of cloudless sunshine* 

66. What are the three classes of stars in our 

latitudes % 

Ans.—I. Those northern stars which never set (north- 
ern circumpolar stars). 2. These southern stars which 
never rise (southern circumpolar stars). 8. Those stars 
which both rise and set. 

67. Where is the northern celestial pole ? 

Ans.— It lies in Ursa Minor, and a star in that constel- 
lation very nearly marks the position of the pole, and is 
therefore called polaris, pole star, or the north star. One of 
the most striking circumpolar constellations is Ursa Major 
(the Great Bear) the Dipper, the Plough or G/iarles 's Wain, 
as it is otherwise called. Two stars in this are called 
pointers, as they point to the pole star, and enable us to 
find it easily. 

Note.— The best way to obtain a knowledge of the various 
constellations and stars is to employ a celestial globe. When the 
positions of the constellations are thus known some star-map 
should be referred to, and used in comparison with the sky itself. 

68. Name other constellations. 

Ans. — The other more important circumpolar constella- 
tions are Cassiopea, Ceplieus, Cygnus, Draco, Auriga (the 
brightest star of which, Capella, is very Eear the horizon 
when below the pole), and Perseus. The principal south- 
ern circumpolar constellations which never rise in this 
country are Crux, Centaurus, Argo, Lepus, Eridanus, and 
Dorado. 

Note.— The apparent movement of the celestial sphere Is com- 
pleted in the same time as the earth's rotation, and if, for instance, 



ASTRQNOMYA 105 

we observe the Great Bear, we shall In six hours see it advance 
from one of its positions to the next— ninety degrees from the 
starting point— completing the revolution around the pole star in 
li hours. 



69. How do we measure the distance of the 
sun? 

Ans.— Of the two principal methods, one depends on 
the gravitating force of the sun upon the moon, and the 
other upon the velocity of light. Now, we know from the 
phenomenon of aberration that light passes from the sun 
to the earth in about 498 secends. If the velocity of light 
is 186,300 miles per second, the product of these two num- 
bers gives the distance of the sun in miles. 



Practical Questions. 



Who invented the planisphere? Which is the "Dog- 
star"? What are the chemical ingredients of the Sun? 
What is the meaning of planet? of solstice? What is ab- 
erration of light? How many moons would it take to make 
one earth? What is a digit? When does the moon become 
gibbous f What, is meant by "mean distance"? Define 
azimuth, declination, and right ascension. What is the 
synodic period? What occasions the change of seasons? 
What is meant by the "precession of the equinoxes"? 
What are the November showers f Of what magnitude are 
the miner planets ? What is a vertical circle? When does 
Venus mane its next transit? What words are derived 
from rpiitoa (trepo) I change t What is the meaning of 
zodiac? To what is the term vialaciea applied? Describe 
mutation. What are faculse? A gnomon is what? How 



108 Dime Question Books. 

determine the latitude by a circumpolar star? What day 
does the clock measure in twenty-four houi$? In what 
phases of the moon do eclipses of the sun and moon 
occur? How much higher and how much lower does the 
moon run than the sun? What were clepsydrm? Who was 
Anaxagoras? What was EirehoiFs theory of the consti- 
tution of the sun? When we say " The earth is in Libra," 
what do we mean? Why can we not see the stars by day 
as well as by night? Locate seven stars of the first magni- 
tude. 




MYTHOLOGY. 



MYTHOLOGY, 



■O : >~ 



1. What is Mythology? 

Ans.— The word mythology Is compounded of two 
Greek words, nvSoS, a fable, and A 6yo% t a discourse; and 
signifies a system of fables, or the fabulous history of the 
false gods of the heathen world. 

2. Name its divisions. 

Ans. — 1. Cosmogony and Theogony. 2. The Gods- 
Superior and .Inferior Deities. 8. The -Demi-Gods and 
Heroes. 4. Mythic Fictions. 

Note.— By Cosmogony, we understand the legends relating to 
the creation of the worlds; by Theogony, those relating to the ori- 
gin of the gods. On both points we have to deal with the Greeks 
alone, since the Romans never indulged in any researches of this 
kind. All that their poets have to say on the subject iSi without 
exception, borrowed from the Greeks. 

3. What was Chaos ? 

Ans.— Chaos,— dark, unbounded space, containing- all 
the seeds of nature, — was first, according to Hesiod; then 
from Chaos were produced Earth (Gaea or Ge), Eros (Love), 
Erebus (Night), and the Universe. Tartarus (the abyss 
beneath the earth) severed itself. Earth was one of the 
most ancient oracles and deities in mythology. She pro- 



110 Dime Question Books. 

duced Uranus (heavenX the mountains, and Pentns (tlie 
sea). 

4. Who were the first gods ? 

Ans.— Those produced of the earth partly by Uranus 
and partly by Pontus. From her union with Uranus 
sprang the Titans, the Cyclopes and the Centimanes (hun- 
dred handed); from her union with Pontus, various sea 
deities. 

Notb.— According to some mycologists, Love is of all gods the 
most ancient, and is said to have existed before all generations, 
and first incited Chaos to bring forth darkness, out of which 
sprang Ether and Day— it is said that his union with Chaos gave 
birth to men and the animals which inhabit the earth;— that even 
the gods themselves were the offspring of Love, before the founda- 
tion of the world. 



5. Who were the twelve Titans ? 

Am— Six males— -Oceanus, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, 
Japetus, and Cronus; six females— Thia, Rhea, Themis, 
Mnemosyne, Phoebe and Tethys. 

Note.— Many marriages took place among the Titans. The 
numerous sea-nymphs are descended from Oceanus and Tethysj 
from Hyperion and Thia come the deities of the light— Helios 
(sun), Selene (moon), and Eos (dawn) : from Coeus and Phoebe, 
the deities of thejiight— Leto (dark night), and Asteria (starry 
night.) 

6. Describe Nox, or Night. 

Ans.— Night covers and conceals, and for this reason 
she is made the mother of the horrible, as well as of the 
charming. From uncreated night, Daylight arose, by 
which all formations are developed, and all creatures 
enjoy life. She is, likewise, according to some, the mother 



Mythology, 111 

enjoy life. She is, likewise, according to some, the mother 
of the inexorable Pares; of the avenging Nemesis, who 
punishes hidden crime; of the Furies, who torment the 
wicked; of Charon, the Ferry-man of Hell; and of the 
twin brothers, Sleep and Death. 

Note.— Slie is also the mother of Dreams; of the Hesperides, 
who guard the golden apples; of Deceit enveloping himself in 
darkness; of malicious censure; of fretting grief; of trouble and 
hunger; of destructive war; of duplicity of speech; and, finally, of 
perjury. Among the children of night are comprised all those 
things which she conceals; or which Fancy, herself, would fain 
cover with nocturnal darkness. In night there is something of 
which even the gods stood in awe, for Homer says: "When Jupiter 
was angry at the god of e sleep,"Night covered him with her vail, 
and the thunderer restrained his wrath, fearing ;to offend swift 
Night." (Iliad XIV, 256.) 

7. What was Pan \ 

Ans.— The Universe; to whom various origins have 
been given, one of which has already been mentioned. 
Among the most learned of the ancients, Pan was consid- 
ered as one of the oldest divinities, and, according to the 
Egyptians and the most learned of the Grecian sages, he 
had neither father nor mother, but sprang from Dernogor- 
gon (the genius of the earth) at the same instant with the 
fatal Parcse. 

8. What did his figure represent ? 

Am— The universe; and is a delineation of nature and 
the rough face which it first wore, while his spotted robe 
of a leopard's skin represents the starry heavens. His 
person is a compound of various and opposite parts; so is 
the world;— an all-governing mind and heterogeneous, pro- 
lific elements pervade and constitute it. 

Note.— Pan's symbol of the pipes is most eloquently express- 
ive of Nature's divine, harmonious constitution, and of the ordei 



112 Dime Question Books. 

and measure that govern all lier works, producing that solemn 
movement called the music of the spheres; imperceptible indeed 
to our material organ, but so delightful and pleasing to the ear of 
the mind. This wondrous reed on which he incessantly plays is 
composed of seven pipes, unequal among themselves, but fitted 
together in such just proportion as to produce the most unerring 
and melodious notes, calling forth the echo, which poets have 
made the object of his love. By the Arcadians, he was venerated 
as the chief of the rural deities. The cause of sudden fright was 
ascribed to him; hence our word " panic," fear without cause. 

Query.— What were the mental qualifications of the gods? 
What was their employment? Who were Mors, Somnus, and Mor- 
pheus? 

9 Who was chief of the celestial deities ? 

Am— Zeus (Jupiter) the son of Kronos (Cronus) and 
Rhea. Uranus, fearing lest his last-born sons, the power- 
ful Cyclopes and Centimanes, might one day seize his 
power, buried them directly after birth, in the deep abyss 
beneath the earth. This displeased Gsea, their mother, 
who thereupon prompted the Titans to conspire against 
their father, and induced Cronus, the youngest and bravest 
of them all, to lay violent hands upon Uranus. Uranus 
was mutilated, cast into chains, and compelled by his 
sons to abdicate his sovereignty, which now passed to 
Cronus, but the latter was not long destined to enjoy the 
fruits of his crime. The curse of Uranus, who prophesied 
that he would suffer a like fate at the hands of his own 
.son, was fulfilled. So anxious was he to avert such a 
catastrophe, that lie swallowed his children immediately 
after their b'rth. Five had already suffered this fate— 
Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon. But their 
mother, Rhea, grieved at their lot, determined to rescue 
her next son, Zeus, by a stratagem. In the place of her 
child, she gave to her suspicious and cruel husband a stone 
wrapped in swaddling clothes, which he swallowed with- 



Mythology, 113 

out further examination, Zeus, who was thus rescued, 
was reared by the nymphs in a grotto on Mount Dicte, in 
Crete. The she-goat Amalthse served as his nurse, while 
the bees brought him honey to eat. In order that the cries 
of the child might not betray his presence to his suspicious 
father, the Curetes, or attendant friends of Rhea, drowned 
his voice in the clashing of their weapons, Zeus remained 
thus hidden until he had become a young but powerful 
god. He then attacked and overthrew his father Cronus, 
whom he also compelled, by means of a device of Gaga, to 
bring forth thet children that he had devoured. One part 
of the Titans submitted without hesitation to this new 
ruler of the world. The others, refusing allegiance, were 
after a contest of ten years overthrown by Zeus with the 
help of tho Cyclopes and Centimanes. 

10. Who were Poseidon and Hades ? 

Ans.— The two brothers of Zeus, with whom he shared 
the empire of the world. The former he made ruler of 
the ocean and waters; the latter he set over the infernal 
regions; everything else he retained for himself. The 
resentment of Gsea, however, led her to produce with Tar- 
tarus, her youngest and most powerful son, the giant 
Typhosus, a monster with a hundred fire-breathing dragons' 
heads, whom she now sent to overthrow the dominion of 
Zeus. A great battle took place, which shook heaven and 
earth. Zeus, by means of his never-ceasing thunder-bolts, 
at length overcame Typhceus, and cast him into Tartarus, 
or, according to later writers (Pindar and Virgil), buried 
him beneath Mount iEtna in Sicily, whence at times he 
still breathes out fire and flames toward heaven. 

Note.— Some poets tell of another rebellion, that of the Giants, 
against Zeus. These are said to have sprung from the drops of 
blood which fell to the earth from the mutilated body of Uranus. 



114 Dime Question Books. 

From the plains of Phlegra, in Thessaly, the land which bears the 
clearest traces of natural convulsions, they sought to storm Olym- 
pus by "piling Pelion on Ossa." But after a bloody battle, in 
which all the gods took part, the two were conquered and sent to 
share the fate of the vanquished Titans in Tartarus. No hostile 
attack ever after disturbed tbe peaceful ease of the inhabitants of 
Olympus. 

11. Name the wives of Zeus. 

Ans. — The earliest wife was Metis (prudence), the 
daughter of Oceanus. Zeus devoured her, fearing lest she 
should bear a son who would deprive him of the empire 
it had cost him so much to attain. It was soon after this 
that he produced Pallas Athene (Minerva) from his own 
head. His second goddess wife was Themis, one of the 
Titans, by whom he became the father of the Horse (Sea- 
sons) and the Moerse (Fates). Dione appears as the wife 
of Zeus of Dodona, and the mother of Aphrodite (Venus); 
while Arcadian Zeus was wedded to Maia, by whom he 
had Hermes (Mercury). By Demeter (Ceres) he became 
the father of Persephone (Proserphine, the goddess of veg- 
etation); by Eurynome, a daughter of Oceanus, of the 
Charites (Graces); by Mnemosyne (Memory), of the Muses; 
by Leto (Latona), of Apollo and Artemis. The youngest 
of all his divine wives, who was recognized by later 
mythology as his only legitimate queen, wa3 his sister 
Hera. By her he became the father of Ares (Mars), 
Hephsestus (Vulcan), and Hebe. 

12. Who was Iris ? 

Ans.— The goddess of the rainbow and the constant at 
tendant of Hera (Juno). 

13. Give an account of Pinto. 

Ans. —Pluto or Hades was the god of the lower regions, 



Mythology* 115 

the entrance to which was guarded by the dog Cerberus, 
" with three heads and a serpent's tail fawning upon those 
who entered, but showing his horrible teeth to those who 
tried to pass on." Those who entered the domains of 
Pluto had to cross the river Styx, and only those whose 
bodies had been properly buried were ferried across by 
Charon, the ferryman. He charged a small fee for his 
services, and a piece of money was always put in the 
mouth of the dead man to insure his passage across the 
river. The river Lethe was also said to exist here, whoso 
waters if tasted by any one would cause utter forgetful- 
ness of the past. 

Query.— Who were the Erinnyes? Name the four rivers of 
Hades. What was the location of the celebrated gardens of the 
Hesperides? Who was the god of the smooth sea? The Nereides, 
or nymphs of the sea, were how many in number? Who was 
Electra? Who was Proserpina? 

14. "Who was clown among the gods ? 

Ans.— Momus (Mockery) a son of Night, was the god 
of raillery and repartee; at the feasts of the gods he played 
the buffoon. His office was to reprove the faults of the 
gods, which he did in so sarcastic a manner as to put him- 
self out of favor. He blamed Vulcan, because in the 
human form which he made of clay, he had net placed a 
window in the breast, by which whatever was done or 
thought there might easily be brought to light. He cen- 
sured the house made by Minerva, because it was not 
movable, by which means a bad neighborhood might be 
avoided. For his various illiberal reflections upon the 
gods, he was finally driven from Heaven. He is generally 
represented raising a mask from his face, and holding a 
small figure in his hand. 

15. What is the legend of Galatea? 



110 Bimb Question Books, 

Ans.— She loved Acis, the hendsome shepherd, and the 
monstrous Cyclop, Folyphemos, sued in vain for her favor. 
On a certain occasion, the monster beheld the nymph at 
ihe foot of Mount Aetna embracing his handsome rival. 
He became distracted with furious jealousy, and, tearing 
up a rOck from its roots, raised it in the air, and hurled 
it upon the lovers in order to bury them under its weight. 
The nymph swiftly escaped into the sea, but Acis, over- 
whelmed by the massive stone, sprang forth from beneath 
it as a purling brook, the waters of which produced a 
meandering stream that bore his name. 

16. "Who were the Grsese (Gray-maids) ? 

Ans.™ Perphredo (horrifier), Enyo (shaker), and Demo, 
(terrifler), three decrepit virgins, who were gray with age 
from their very birth. Their abode was at the end of the 
earth, where reigns eternal night. 

17. What was the Sphinx ? 

Ans. —A monster with the face of a woman, the breast, 
feet and tail of a lion, and the wings of a bird. Juno, 
always hostile to the city of Dionysos, sent this monster to 
ravage the territory of Thebes; She had been taught rid- 
dles by the Muses, and from the Phicean Hill propounded 
one to the Thebans. It was this: "What is that which 
has'one voice, is four-footed, two-footed, and at last three - 
footed?" The oracle told the Thebans that they would 
not be delivered from the Sphinx until they had solved the 
riddle. They often met to try their skill, and, when they 
failed, the Sphinx carried off and devoured one of their 
number. At length Haemon, son of Creon, having become 
her victim, his father, by public proclamation, offered his 
throne and the hand of his sister, Jocasta, to whoever 



Mytholo&y. 117 

should solve the riddle. Aedipus, -who was then at Thebes, 
hearing this, came forward and answered the Sphinx that 
it was man, who when an infant creeps on all fours; when 
a man, goes on two feet; and when old, uses a staff, a 
third foot. The Sphinx then flung herself down to the 
earth and perished. 

Query.— Who were the Gorgons ? What came from the blood 
of Medusa? What was the name of the two-headed dog? How 
was the Chimera represented? What were the orders of nymphs? 

18. What tradition had the Greeks ? 

Ans. — That of a great flood which swept away the 
whole human race except one pair, Deucalion and his 
wife Pyrrha, who were preserved and landed on Mount 
Parnassus when the flood abated. By the direction of 
Jupiter, he and his wife threw stones behind them, and 
those which Deucalion threw became men, and those 
thrown by Pyrrha women. 

19. Who was the most beautiful of the gods ? 

Ans.— Apollo. Like other sons of Zeus, he is a god of 
light, and, indeed, the purest and highest representative of 
this mighty power in nature. As the bright god of heaven, 
to whom everything impure end unholy is hateful, we find 
Apollo, soon after his birth, preparing to do battle with 
the evil powers of darkness. With his arrows he slew 
both the giant Tityus and the serpent Python, the latter a 
monster that inhabited the valley of the Plistus, near Del- 
phi, and destroyed both men and cattle. 

20. Who was Artemis (Diana) ? 

Ans. — The feminine counterpart of her twin brother 
Apollo, with whom she entirely harmonizes when regarded 
from her physical aspect. Like him, she is a beautiful and 



118 Dime Question Books, 

propitious deity; but like him, too, she can deal out, at 
times, death and destruction amoDg mankind, 

2L Who was the god of the sea % 

Ans.— Poseidon (Neptune). He is represented as bear- 
ing a trident, and driving a chariot with horses over the 
water, Amphi trite was his wife and the goddess of the 
sea. 

22, Who was the god of war % 

Ans.— Mars; who represents war from its fatal and de- 
structive side, by which he is clearly distinguished from 
Athene, the wise disposer of battles. Homer, in the 
"Iliad," paints in particularly lively colors the picture of 
this rude " man- slaying " god of war. He here appears as 
a deity who delights only in the wild din of battle, and is 
never weary of strife and slaughter. The usual attendants 
and servants are Fear and Terror. Popular belief made 
Mars the father, by a vestal virgin, of Romulus and Remus, 
the legendary founders of Rome. His wife appears to 
have been Nerio; but she enjoyed no honors at Rome. 

Note.— It must be remembered that the Bomans adopted from 
the Greeks the popular conceptions regarding the gods. They 
transferred existing myths, and fathered them on their own gods 
and goddesses that bore the closest resemblance to the Greek di- 
vinities, and harmonized best with their natural interpretation. 
Thus it was that the Eoman Jupiter was identified with the Greek 
Zeus, Juno with Hera, Minerva with Athene ; though for peculiar 
deities, such as Janus, they could find no Greek prototype. 

23. Who was transformed into a cow ? 

Ans.— Io; a daughter of Inachos, loved by Jupiter, and 
persecuted by Juno; who, after her transformation, was 
furiously driven over the whole earth, until she found a 



Mythology 1 ] 9 

resting place in Egypt. There she had a temple erected, 
and was worshipped as a goddess (Isis), She gave a son 
to Jupiter, called Epaphos, from whom sprang a royal race, 
that afterward reigned in Greece, founding their right of 
royal authority on descent from old Inachos, 

Query.— From whom is tbe word "Martial "derived? How 
many eyes had Argus? Who was Phoroneus? What was tbe 
Alpheios? What was the origin of the fountain Arethusa? 

24. How were the gods punished ? 

Aks.— If any of them were guilty of perjury, Jupiter 
obliged them to drink of the water of the Styx, which for 
a whole year lulled them to senseless stupidity, and for the 
nine following years they were deprived of the nectar and 
ambrosia of the gods. 

25. Who was the goddess of love ? 

Ans. —Venus, In the " Iliad," she is represented as the 
daughter of Jupiter and Dione, but this account was grad- 
ually replaced by another which prevailed among the later 
poets, who related that she was born of the foam of the 
sea, and first touched land on the island of Cyprus, which 
was henceforth held sacred to her. She' figured among 
the Greeks as goddess of beauty and sexual love. 

Note.— The story of her love for the beautiful Adonis is of 
Asiatic origin, but underwent various alterations on its way 
through Greece. The germ of the story may be easily distinguised, 
as it clearly represents the decay of nature in autumn, and its re- 
suscitation in spring. Adonis was killed, when hunting, by a wild 
boar. Inconsolable at her loss, Venus piteously entreated Father 
Jove to restore his life. Jupiter at length consented that Adonis 
should spend one part of the year in the world of shadows, and the 
other in the upper world. 

26. Give an account of Mercury, 



120 Dime Question Books* 

Ans.— He was born in a grotto of Mount Cyllene, in 
Arcadia, whence he is called Cyllenius. We know the 
stories of his youth chiefly from the so-called Homeric 
Hymn, This relates in a delightful manner how he gave 
token, soon, after his birth, of his cunning and dexterity, 
the chief features of his character. Growing in a wonder- 
ful manner, as only gods can grow, he sprang, only four 
hours after his birth, from his mother's lap, and finding a 
tortoise, he placed strings across its shell, and thus invented 
the lyre, on which he immediately began to sing the loves 
of Jupiter and Mala. Then towards evening, impelled by 
a resistless craving for meat, he hurried to Fieria, where 
he stole fifty bulls from the herds of Apollo. After killing 
two of them, and thus satisfying his hunger, he returned 
to the grotto of his mother and lay down in his cradle as 
though nothing had happened. Apollo, however, soon 
remarked the theft, and hurried after the impudent rob- 
ber. Mercury now played the innocent, and obstinately 
denied the charge; but Apollo was not to be deceived, and 
forced the young thief to accompany him to the throne of 
Jupiter to have their quarrel decided. Jove ordered Mer- 
cury to restore the cattle, but Apollo gladly made them 
over to Mercury on receiving the newly invented pipe. 
Thus the latter became the god of shepherds and pastures, 
while Apollo henceforth zealously devoted himself to the 
art of music. Mercury became afterwards the messenger 
of the immortals. 

27. Who was the blacksmith of the gods ? 

Ans. — Vulcan, the god of fire and the forge, was com 
monly regarded as a son of Jupiter and Juno. According 
to Hesiod, he is the son of Juno alone, who in this wished 
not to be outdone by Zeus, who had produced Minerva 
from his own brain. He was weak and delicate from his 



Mythology, 121 

birth, for which, reason he was so disliked by his mother 
that she flung him from Olympus. He was received by 
Thetis and Burynome, and dwelt with them for nine years 
in a grotto, surrounded by Oceanus. According to later 
writers, he was educated with the rest of the gods in 
heaven, and was expelled from Olympus by Jupiter. Juno 
raised a storm, which drove Hercules out of his course at 
sea. Jupiter then tied her hands and feet together, and 
suspended her between heaven and earth. Vulcan at- 
tempted to free his mother, and for this act he was kicked 
down from heaven by his father. The island of Lemnos 
is said to have received the god. 

Note.— His first work is said to have been a throne of gold, 
which he presented to his mother, to avenge himself for her want 
of affection towards him— upon which Juno was no sooner seated 
than she found herself unable to move. The gods attempted to set 
her at liberty by breaking the chains with which she was confined; 
but to no purpose, as Vulcan alone had the power to unloose them. 

28. Who was Hestia (Yesta) ? 

Ans. — The guardian angel of mankind, who guards the 
security of the dwelling, and is, in consequence, regarded 
as the goddess of the family hearth, the centre of domestic 
life. In the temple at Delphi a fire was kept ever burning 
in honor of Hestia. The character of the goddess was as 
pure and untarnished as flame itself. Not only did she 
herself remain a virgin, though wooed by both Neptune 
and Apollo, but her service could be performed only by 
chaste virgins. 

29. What is said of the vestal virgins ? 

Ans.— The service of Vesta occupied a far more import- 
ant place in the life of the Romans. Her most ancient 
temple, which was supposed to have been built by Nema 



122 Dims Question Books. 

Pompilius, was situated on the slope of the Palatine oppo 
Site the Forum. It was built in a circle, and was of mod- 
erate dimensions, being, indeed, little more than a covered 
fire-place. In it the eternal fire, a symbol of the life of the 
state, was kept burning. Here, too, the service was per- 
formed by virgins, whose number was at first four, but 
was afterward increased to six. Their chief occupation 
was to maintain the sacred fire, and to offer up daily 
prayers at the altar of the goddess for the welfare of the 
Roman people. The extinction of the sacred flame was 
esteemed an omen of coming misfortune, and brought 
severe punishment on the negligent priestess. The choice 
of vestals lay with the Ponlifex Maximus. They were 
chosen between the ages of six and ten years, always out 
of the best Roman families, For thirty years they 
remained bound to their sacred office, during which time 
they had to preserve the strictest chastity. At the end of 
this time they returned to civil life, and were permitted to 
marry if they liked, 

30. From what god is the name January de- 
rived ? 

Ans.— From Janus. In Italy, he was usually repre- 
sented with two faces, one before and one behind, and hence 
called Bifrons and Biceps. Sometimes he is -represented 
with four faces, and is then called Quadrifrons. There 
was an ancient statue of this deity in the Forum, said to 
be as old as the time of Nurna, of which the fingers were 
so formed that those of one hand represented three hun- 
dred (CCC), those of the other, fifty-five (LV); the number 
of the days of the ancient lunar year, 

8L Who was Qnirinus? 

Am— -A purely Roman divinity. In his symbolic 



Mythology. 123 

moaning he bore a great resemblance to Mars. He was 
the national god of the Sabines, who came to Rome with 
Titus Tatius, 

Query.— Winch of the goddesses made the chase her favorite 
amusement? Of what god did the Eoman consuls ask a blessing? 
Who were the Penates? Where were the workshops ol Vulcan? 
Who was the Argus-slayer? 

32, Who alone of the secondary deities en- 
joyed divine honors ? 

Ans.— Eros (Amor, or Cupid), who was reputed to be 
the son of Venus and Mars. A boy of wondrous beauty, 
on the verge of youth, his weapon is a golden bow, with 
which he shoots forth his arrows from secret lurking- 
places, with an unfailing effect that represents the sweet 
but consuming pangs of love. 

33. Eelate the fable of Cupid and Psyche. 

Ans.— The beauty of Psyche aroused the jealousy of 
Venus, who sent Cupid charged with the mission of in- 
citing her to love some common man. Cupid made the 
visit, but was so smitten with her beauty that he fell in 
love with her, and carried her to a fairy palace in the vale 
of Paradise, where they lived happily. Bat Psyche was 
not allowed to behold Cupid with her eyes, and tempted 
by her sisters to satisfy her curiosity she took a lamp and 
Stole to his bed-side when he was asleep. A drop of hot 
oil falling from the lamp awakened the god, who charged 
her with disobedience to his commands and deserted her. 
Having searched for him long she at last found her way 
to the palace of Venus, who, after exacting from her 
Various kinds of menial service, ordered her to go to the 
lower world and bring a box of beauty's ointment from 



"124 Dime Question Books. 

Persephone. On returning and opening the box, ehe sank 
overpowered by the odor. Cupid, unable to resist longer, 
came to her help and brought her back to life. The wrath 
of Venus was appeased, and Cupid and Psyche were mar- 
ried, the latter obtaining immortality. 

Note.— Psyche signified originally " th& soul," but came after- 
ward to mean " a ~buttcrpj," the likeness of the two being not dif- 
ficult to see. The object of the story seems to be to illustrate the 
three stages of the soul's existence : its pre-existence in a happy 
state, its abode on earth with trials and sorrow, and the future 
state of happy immortality. 

34. Who was Hjmengeus (Hymen) ? 

Ans. — A personification of the joys of marriage; who 
was, however, only recognized by later writers and by 
later art. He is protrayed as a beautiful youth, winged 
like Cupid, but taller, and of a more serious aspect. His 
indispensable attribute is the marriage torch. 

35. Name the nine Muses. 

Ans. — Clio, Melpomene, Terpsichore, Polyhymnia, 
Thalia, Urania, Euterpe, Erato, and Calliope. Pindar gives 
the following account of their origin: After the defeat of 
the Titans, the celestials besought Jupiter to create some 
beings who might perpetuate in song the mighty deeds of 
the gods. In answer to this prayer he produced with 
Mnemosyne the Muses. They sing of the present, the 
past, and the future, while Apollo's lute accompanies their 
sweet strains, which gladden the hearts of the gods as they 
sit assembled in the lofty palace of Father Zeus, in Olym- 
pus. Looked at in connection with Nature, there is lit- 
tle doubt but that the Muses were originally nymphs of 
the fountains. The veneration of the Muses first arose in 
Pieria, a district on the eastern declivity of Mount Olym- 



Mythology 125 

pug, in Thessaly, from whoso steep and rocky heights a 
number of sweet rippling brooks descend to the plains. 
The preception of this natural music led at once to a belief 
in the existence of such song-living goddesses. Their seat 
was subsequently transferred from the declivities of Olym- 
pus to Mount Helicon, in Bceolia, or to Mount Parnassus, 
at the foot of which the Castalian fountain, which was 
sacred to them, had its source, Originally the muses were 
only goddesses of song, though they are sometimes repre- 
sented with instruments on vases. In early times, too, 
they only appear as a chorus or company, but at a later 
period separate functions were assigned to each, as presid- 
ing over this, or that, branch of art. 

Note.— According to the art-distribution, made probably at 
the time of the Alexandrine school, Calliope represents epic 
poetry and science generally, her attributes being a roll of parch- 
ment and a pen. Clio is the muse of history, and is likewise char- 
acterized by a roll and pen, so that it is sometimes difficult to dis- 
tinguish her from Calliope. Eutherp represents lyric poetry, and 
is distinguished by her double flute. Melpomene, the muse of 
tragedy, generally appears with a tragic mask, a club or sword, 
and a garland of vine-leaves. Terpsichore is the muse of dancing, 
and has a lyre and plectrum. To Erato is assigned erotic poetry, 
together with geometry and the mimic art; she generally bears a 
large stringed instrument. Thalia, the muse of comedy, is distin- 
guished by comic mask, an ivy garland, and a crook. Polyhym- 
nia presides over the graver chant of religious service; she may 
be recognized by her dress, wrapped closely around her, and her 
grave, thoughtful countenance, but is without attribute of any 
kind. Lastly, Urania, the muse of astronomy, holds in one hand 
a celestial globe, and in the other a small wand, 

36. Who were the Carnenae % 

Ans.— The Romans venerated a number of fountain- 
nymphs of song and prophecy under this name, among 
-whom the Egeria of the history of Numa is well known. 



128 Dime Question Books. 

The Roman writers seem at pleasure to have identified 
these goddesses with the Muses. 

87. What does tlie name Atlas signify ? 

Am— The Endurer, and Homer calls him the wise or 
deep4hin7cing, who knows all the depths of the sea, and 
keeps the lorg pillars which hold Heaven and Earth asun- 
der. The Atlas of Homer and Hesiod is not the personifi- 
cation of a mountain. In process of time, however, when 
the meaning of the earlier legend had become obscured or 
lost, Atlas, the keeper of the pillars that support Heaven, 
became a mountain of Libya. 

Note.— According to one mythologist, Atlas was a king of the 
remotest west, rich in flocks and nerds, and master of the trees 
that bore the golden apples. An ancieat prophecy delivered by 
Themis had announced to him that his precious trees would be 
plundered by a son of Jupiter. When, therefore, Perseus, on his 
return from slaying the Gorgon, arrived in the realms of Atlas, 
and, seeking hospitality, announced himself to be a son of the king 
of gods, the western monarch, calling to mind the prophecy, 
attempted to repel him from his doors. Perseus, inferior in 
strength, displayed the head of Medusa, and the inhospitable mon- 
arch was turned into the mountain which still bears his name. 

38. What other account is given ? 

Ans. — That he was a man of Libya, devoted to astron- 
omy. Having ascended a lofty mountain, for the purpose 
of making observations, he fell into the sea, and both sea 
and mountain were named after him. His supporting the 
heavens was usually explained by making him an astrono* 
mer and the inventor of the sphere, 

39. How was the formation of man accom- 
plished ? 

Am —Prometheus took a piece of earth, a portion oi 



Mythology. 127 

clay still impregnated with divine particles, moistened it 
with water, and formed man after the image of the gods; 
so that he alone raises his look to heaven, while all other 
creatures bend their eyes to the ground. 

Note.— Prometheus is said to have been the first to secure the 
use of fire for mankind, which he succeeded in doing by stealing it 
from heaven. Asa punishment for the theft, he was condemned 
to be chained alive to a rock in the Caucausus mountains, while 
every day a vulture came and ate of his liver, which grew again as 
fast as eaten. Hercules set Prometheus free, and destroyed the 
vulture that preyed on his liver. Prometheus out of gratitude 
warned him not to go himself to take the golden apples of the Hes- 
perides, but to send Atlas for them, and in the meantime to sup- 
port the Heaven in his stead. The hero did as desired, and, at his 
request, Atlas went to the Hesperides and obtained three apples 
from there. He then proposed to take them himself to Eurys- 
theus, while Hercules remained to support the sky. At the sug- 
gestion of Prometheus, the hero feigned consent, but begged him 
to take hold of the heavens till he made a pad to put upon his head. 
Atlas threw down the apples aud good-humoredly consented, 
when Hercules.of course, left him hi his former position and made 
off with the prize. 

40. Who was Pandora ? 

Ans.-— When Jupiter descried the light of fire upon the 
earth, he formed the design of punishing men through 
their own folly. He therefore requested Vulcan to make 
awoman of clay, which he intended sending to Prome- 
theus for a wife; he directed him to knead earth and 
water till it assumed the form of a virgin, like the immor- 
tal goddesses, and then to give it human voice and strength, 
Jupiter also desired Minerva to endow her with artist- 
knowledge, Venus to give her beauty, and Mercury to 
inspire her with an impudent and artful disposition. When 
formed, she was attired by the Seasons and Graces, and 
each of the deities having bestowed upon her the desired 
gifts, she was called Pandora (All gifted). Jupiter then 



129 Dime Question Books. 

gave her a beautiful box, which she was ordered to pre- 
sent to the man who married her; and, by the commission 
of the god, Mercury conducted her to Prometheus. In 
the box was enclosed the whole train of evils that threaten 
mankind. Prometheus, aware of the fraud, rejected the 
dangerous gift, and sent Pandora away without suffering 
himself to be captivated by her charms. 

41. How did the misfortunes appointed to 
men come upon them ? 

Ans. — Through the inconsiderate Epimetheus, who, 
although warned by his brother Prometheus, suffered him- 
self to be captivated by the charms of Pandora, who, after 
he married her, opened the pernicious box, out of which 
all imaginable evils spread themselves over the whole 
earth, inflicting misery upon mankind. Pandora immedi- 
ately closed it again, but the evils had all escaped, and 
nothing remained in the box but Hope; who, according to 
Jupiter's decree, would in time afford some consolation to 
mortals. • 

Query.— What was the Pyrtaneum? Who erected a temple to 
Venus Genetrix? How did Rome receive the shield of Mars? What 
is the Venus of Milo? How high is Mount Olympus? Of what is 
Nike (Victoria) a personification? 

42. Who was Hebe (Juventus) ? 

Ans —The cup-bearer of the gods, to whom, at meal, 
she presents the sweet nectar. It may at first seem strange 
that the daughter of the greatest of the divinities of Greece 
(Jove) should be relegated to so inferior a position. This, 
however, is easily explained by the old patriarchal custom 
of & the Greeks, by which the young unmarried daughters, 



Mythology, 129 

even in royal palaces, waited at table on the men of the 
family and the guests, 

43. .By whom was she succeeded ? 

Ans— By Ganymede, sou of Tros, the king of Troy, who 
was made immortal by Jupiter, and installed as cup-bearer 
of the gads. Neither Homer nor Pmdar, however, relates 
the episode of Jupiter sendiug his eagle to carry off Gany- 
mede. This is first found in Apollodorus, The Roman 
poet, Ovid, then went a step farther, and made the ruler 
of Olympus transform himself into an eagle, in order to 
carry off his favorite, 

44. Who was the god of healing ? 

Ans.™ Asclepius (iEsculapius). The worship of this 
deity, who was said to be the son of Apollo, appears to 
have originated in Epidaurus, the seat of his principal 
ehrine, and thence to have become generally diffused. In 
the year 291 B. C„ the Romans, suffering from a severe 
pestilence which had for years depopulated town and 
county, consulted the Sibylline books, which recommended 
that iEsculapius should be brought to Rome. The story 
goes that the sacred serpent of the god followed the 
Roman embassadors of its own accord, and chose for its 
abode the Insula Tiberina at Rome, where a temple was at 
once erected to iEsculapius. 

45. Who was the god of wine and de- 
bauchery % 

Ans. — Dionysus, or Bacchus (Liber); who, growing up 
amidst the solitude of the forest and strengthening him- 
self by his contests with its wild beasts, at length planted 



ISO Dimk Question Books. 

the vine, Both the god and his attendants soon became 
intoxicated with its juice; after which, crowned with 
wreaths of laurel and ivy, and accompanied by a crowd 
of nymphs, satyrs, and fawns, he ranged the woods, 
which resounded with the loud and joyful cries of his in- 
spired worshippers. The legend says his education was 
then completed by Silenus, the son of Pan. 

46. What is the storv of Ariadne ? 

Ans.— She was the daughter of Minos, king of Crete. 
The Attic hero, Theseus, after escaping the dangers of the 
Labyrinth by her means, had taken her away with him 
from Crete in order to marry her. He deserted her, how- 
ever, while asleep on the island of Naxos, either of his 
own accord, or because warned of the god in his dream. 
The indescribable anguish and consternation of Ariadne, 
on awakening to find herself alone and deserted on a for- 
eign strand, were only equalled by her joyous surprise 
when Bacchus, returning from his travels in India, found 
her and made her his bride. 

Query.— Who was Cybele? What is the story of L.r favorite, 
Attis? "Who obtained divine rank by a leap into the sea? How 
did Glaucus become a god? What were Dryads and Satyrs? 

47. Name the pastoral goddesses. 

Ans. — Vertumnus, the self-changing one; Pomona, the 
goddess of the fruit harvest; Pales, venerated by the shep- 
herds; Terminus, who presided over boundaries; Ceres, 
patroness of all the arts connected with agriculture; and 
Persephone, who may be regarded as a type of the grain. 

48. Who was Tantalos (Tantalus) ? 

Ans.— King of Phrygia, who, offending the gods by 



Mythology. 131 

Ms overbearing and treacherous conduct and the cruelty 
he practised on his own son, was doomed in Tartarus to 
stand in water up to his throat, while he could not stoop to 
quench his burning thirst, and to have luscious fruit hang 
over his head which he could not reach, though suffering 
with constant hunger. The real significance and force of 
the word tantalise thus appears. 

49. What is the story of Ixion ! 

Ans.— A king of Thessaly, who, for an unnatural 
crime, was banished from the society of mankind to the 
realms of Jupiter, where he made an attack upon the 
virtue of Juno. The angered gods seized him, and Mer- 
cury bound him upon the everlasting wheel over the abyss 
of Tartarus, and then compelled him to consort with the 
Magnesian mares on the planes of Pelion. Here was born 
the giant Centaurus, from whom a race of Centaurs filled 
the earth. Half horse, half man, the world trembled at 
their daring. Aesculapius was one of their students. 

IXION. 
Permitted with the feasting gods to sit, 

The bright, sun-clad, inflaming scene 
Within his blood the fires of passion lit, 

He dared to love Jove's queen. 

Smitten with thunder, hurled from heaven's height 

Headlong to hell— him Hermes bound 
Upon the wheel, which through eternal night 

Circles its restless round. 

% A myth symbolic, living from the old, 

Voicing through time, the well-earned fate 
Of him, who, spurning charms of mortal mould, 
Would with a goddess mate. a. P. S. 

50. What other celebrated criminals were 
there l 



132 Dime Question Books. 

Ans. — Tityus, who, offering violence to Leto, was 
chained to the earth, while two vultures continually 
gnawed at his ever-growing liver. Sis} r phus, formerly 
king of Corinth, had provoked the wrath of the gods by 
his numerous crimes, and was condemned, inconsequence, 
to roll a block of stone up a high mouutain, which, on 
reaching the top, always rolled down again to the plain. 
The Danaids, or daughters of Danaus, were condemned to 
pour water continually into a sack full of holes, which 
never could be filled, for killing their husbands on tho 
wedding night. 

51. What was the Palladium ? 

Ans.— A small wooden image of Pallas (Minerva) which 
Originally fell from heaven upon the city of Troy. Upon 
the capture of that city, it was carried to Greece, and from 
thence to Rome. The safety and existence of the Roman 
Empire, they thought, depended upon the preservation of 
this figure. 

52. Who was Proteus ? 

Ans. —A sea deity who could, assume any form at pleas- 
ure, changing himself into fire or water, plant or animal, 
Which rendered him difficult of access; and sometimes, 
when consulted, he evaded an answer by a sudden meta- 
morphosis. To those only who held him fast with vigorous 
arms did he appear in his real character, and by his spirit 
of divination reveal to them the truth. 

53. For what is Amphion celebrated ? 

Ans.— The melancholy fate of his sons and daughters, 
He married Niobe, the daughter of the Phrygian king, 



Mythology. 133 

Tantalus, and sister of Pelops. The heart of Niobe was 
lifted up with pride at the number of her children,* and 
she ventured to prefer herself to Leto, who had only two; 
she even went so far as to forbid the Thebans to offer sac- 
rifice to Leta and her children, and to claim these honors 
herself. The vengeance of the offended -deities, however, 
now overtook her, and all her children were laid low in 
one day before, the unerring arrows of Apollo and his sis- 
ter. The parents did not survive this deep affliction. 
Amphion slew himself, and Niobe, already paralyzed with 
grief, was turned into stone by the pity of the gods, and 
transferred to her old Phrygian home on Mount Sipylus, 
though even the stone has not ceased to weep. 

54. Who was the goddess of three faces? 

Ans. — Hecate; who was supposed to preside over all 
nocturnal horrors, and not only to haunt the tombs and 
cross-roads herself in company with the spirits of the dead, 
but also to send nightly phantoms from the lower world, 
such as the man eating spectre Empusa, and other fabu- 
lous goblins. 

55. Who were Thanatus and Hypnus? 

Ans. — The twin brothers Death and Sleep. The 
Romans had a personal god of death, whom tbey called 
Orcus; he was represented as an armed warrior dealing out 
mortal wounds among mankind. 

56. What was Action's transformation ? 
Ans.— Into a stag; changed by Artemis while hunting 

♦Homer gives her six sons, and as many daughters; Hesiod 
and Pindar, ten sons, and ten daughters; but the most common 
account allows her fourteen children. 



134: Dime Question Books. 

one day on Mount Cithaeron, and torn into pieces by his 
dogs. The cause of her anger was either that he had 
boasted that he was a more skilful hunter than Artemis, 
or, according to the tradition that ultimately prevailed, 
that he had surprised the virgin goddess bathing., 

57. What is the fable of Narcissus ? 

Ans. — Echo, a Boetian nymph, was consumed by love 
for the beautiful youth Narcissus, a son of the river-god 
Cephisus, and finding that he did not reciprocate her affec- 
tion, she pined away until nothing was left of her but her 
voice, which occupied itself in mocking everything it 
heard. Venus revenged this injury to her sex by causing 
Narcissus to fall in love with his own image, which he 
saw reflected in the water, while bending down to quench 
his thirst from a spring as clear as crystal. He, too, pined 
away from grief, and was punished by being changed 
into the flower which bears his name. 

58. Relate the fiction of Phaeton (Phaethon). 

Ans. — He was the son of Helios and the ocean nymph 
Clymene. Venus intrusted him with the care of one of 
her temples. This distinguished favor of the goddess ren- 
dered him so vain and aspiring that Epaphos, to check his 
pride, disputed his claims to a celestial origin. Phaeton, 
to refute this bitter reproach, resolved to know his true 
origin; and, at the instigation of his mother, visited the 
palace of the Sun, to beg that Helios, if he really were his 
father, would give him some proof of his paternal tender- 
ness, and convince the world of his legitimacy. Helios 
swore by the Styx that he would grant him whatever he 
required. The ambitious youth instantly demanded per- 
mission to guide the solar chariot for one day, in order to 
prove himself the undoubted progeny of the Sun-god. Not 



Mythology. 135 

daring to violate the oath by Styx, and finding entreaties 
and remonstrances unavailing to persuade him from his 
perilous enterprise, Helios complied with his wish, and 
Phaeton mounted the chariot of the Sun. The result was 
that the celestial coursers, guided by a feebler hand than 
that of Helios, ran a zigzag course towards the heavens 
and earth, causing the mountains to blaze and the rivers 
to dry up, and when Earth in her extremity besought 
Jupiter for help, the king of gods struck Phaeton with one 
of his thunderbolts/precipitating him into the river Erida- 
nos. 

•59. Who was Orpheus? 

Ans.-— The son of Apollo and the muse Calliope. His 
wife, a nymph named Eurydice, died from the bite of a 
serpent. Orpheus, disconsolate at her loss, determined to 
descend to the lower world, and obtain permission for his 
beloved Eurydice to return to the regions of light. Armed 
only with his lyre, he entered the realms of Hades, and 
gained an easy admittance to the palace of Pluto. At the 
music of his "golden shell," to "borrow the beautiful lan- 
guage of ancient poetry, the wheel of Ixion stopped, Tan- 
talus forgot the thirst that tormented him, the "Vulture 
ceased to prey on the vitals of Tityus, and Pluto and Pro- 
serpina lent a favoring ear to his prayer. Eurydice was 
released on condition that Orpheus should not look back 
on her till he reached the upper world. Orpheus, however, 
violated this condition, and Eurydice was once more lost 
to him. He himself, not long afterward, while wandering 
in his despair over the Thracian mountains, was torn ic 
pieces by some women in the mad excitement of theii 
nightly Bacchanalian orgies. 

EHDYMION, 

As once on the mountains, dreaming, 
Eudymion lay at aight, 



136 Dime Question Book. 

DIan, while stars were gleaming, 

Looked from the realms of light; 
Looked, and swiftly descending, 

(Her mission of joy and bliss) 
Over the shepherd bending, 

Wakened him with a kiss. 

60. What was Grimalkin? 

Ans. — A cat; changed by Venus into a beautiful woman 
at the wish of a devoted lover. While in the embraces of 
her husband, upon seeing a rat, she immediately jumped 
from the bed and, the feline nature asserting itself, pur- 
sued the animal. 

61. Why has the river Pactolus golden sands ? 

Ans.— Pan, the favorite of the Phrygian King, Midas, 
wished to compete with Apollo in the art of which the lat- 
ter was master. Pan commenced the contest, and Midas 
repeated his songs with enthusiasm, regardless of his celes- 
tial rival, when, to his surprise, Midas felt a pair of ears, 
long and shaggy, pressing through his hair. Alarmed at 
this phenomenon, Pan tied. Midas made his w T ife the con- 
fidant of his misfortune, and she, longing to tell the secret 
but daring not, for fear of punishment, sought a retired 
and lonely spot, where she threw herself upon the ground 
and whispered, " King Midas has the ears of an ass:" and 
the reeds that arose ia this place repeated as the wind 
passed through them, "King Miclas has the ears of an 
ass." Enraged and terrified, the king sacrificed to Bac- 
chus, who, to console him, desired him to ask whatever 
he wished. According to his desire, everything he touched 
turned to gold, even his food and drink. He then prayed 
to Bacchus for deliverance from this plague, and, directed 
by the god to wash in the river Pactolus, gave to that 
stream golden sands. 



Mythology. 137 

62. What is the fable of Cymon and Iphige- 

nia? 

Ans.— It simply relates how, under the accidental in- 
fluence of female charms, Cymon's character is gradually 
moulded, and from a rough boar he is transformed into a 
gentleman of elegant manners and delicate feelings. 

63. What trial of valor was assigned Bellero- 
phon? 

Ans.— The destruction of the fire- vomiting Chimsera, 
who had the head of a lion, the body of a goat, and the 
tail of a dragon. To this bold adventure the gods lent 
their assistance, granting him the winged horse Pegasus. 
The hero bestrode him, and then in the air commenced 
the fight. The monster defended herself to the utmost, 
sending from her mouth whole masses of fire, and coiling 
hor dragon tail in formidable windings. But after a per- 
severing and obstinate struggle, the monster lay stretched 
on the ground, weltering in her blood. Yet the happiness 
of the hero was of short duration; for when, elated by 
this and other victories, he attempted by means of Pegasus 
to ascend to Heaven, Jupiter, incensed at his boldness, 
sent an insect to sting the steed, which made Pegasus 
bound so furiously in the air as to throw his rider to the 
earth, where he wandered in solitude and melancholy 
until death relieved him of his fate. 

64. What is the fiction of Atalanta? 

Ans.— She first distinguished herself in the Calydonian- 
hunt, and, at the funeral games of Pelias, won the prize 
in wrestling. .Her father wished her to marry, to which 
she consented, on condition that her suitors should run 8 



138 Dime QtnssnoN Books. 

race with her, promising, if she should be vanquished, to 
become wife of the victor; but the vanquished suitor 
should be shot by one of her own darts. As she was al- 
most invincible in running, many of her suitors perished 
in the contest. Hippomenes, however, imploring the as- 
sistance of Venus before venturing to enter upon this dan- 
gerous race, received from her three golden apples which, 
one after another, he let slip from his hand during the 
course. Atalanta, whose eyes were dazzled by the glitter 
and beauty of this golden fruit, repeatedly stopped to take 
it up from the ground, and thus Hippomenes gained time 
to reach the goal before her. 

Note.— Hippomenes thus gained the maid of the chase, but 
unmindful of the benefit which he owned to the goddess of love, 
both were obliged to atone for his offence against Venus. Pro- 
faning a sanctuary of Cybele,— upon the impulse of Venus,— they 
were transformed into two lions, that under one yoke drew the 
chariot of Cybele. 

65. What were the twelve labors of Hercules? 

Ans. — Hercules wa3 the son of Jupiter by Alcmena. 
and was destined by the god to occupy the throne of Per- 
seus, but by the contrivance of Juno was superseded by 
Eurystheus, whom he was ordered to serve twelve years; 
but was promised that after he had achieved twelve great 
works he should be translated to the gods. The labors are 
enumerated as follows: 1. The fight with the Numean lion, 
which he attacked with a club, and finally strangled, 
bringing the carcass to Mycense. He afterward used the 
head of the lion as a helmet, and the impenetrable skin as 
a defence. 2. The destruction of the Lernsean hydra, 
which had nine heads, eight mortal and one immortal. As 
each head was crushed, two new ones sprang up, until his 
companion, Iolaus, seared the necks with burning brands, 
which prevented the growth of new heads. He then 



Mythology. 139 

dipped his arrows in its gall, thus rendering the wounds 
inflicted by them incurable. 8. The capture of the Ery- 
manthean boar, which he chased up to the snow-covered 
.rammit of a mountain, and then caught alive. 4. The cap- 
ture of the Stag of Diana, famous for its swiftness, golden 
horns and brazen hoofs. He pursued it for a year, and at 
length, wounding it with an arrow, caught it. 5. The 
killing of the Stymphalides, or carnivorous birds, which 
ravaged the country, feeding on human flesh. He startled 
them with his rattle of brass, and shot most of them, as 
they were flying away. 6. Cleaning the Augean stables, 
where 3,000 oxen had been kept for 30 years. This he 
accomplished in a single day, by turning the river Alpheus, 
or Peneus, through the stable. 6. The capture of the wild 
bull of Crete. 8. The abduction of the four mares of Dio- 
medes, king of the Bistones, a warlike tribe of Thrace. He 
slew Diomedes, and threw his body to the mares, which 
became tame after eating their late master. 9. The seiz- 
ure of the girdle of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons, 10. 
The capture of the oxen of Geryones, a monster who lived 
in the island of; Erythia, which were guarded by the giant 
herdsman, Eiirytion, and the two-headed dog Oretheus. 
11. Seizing the golden apples of the Hesperides. 12. The 
capture of Cerberus, the three-headed dog that guarded the 
entrance to Hades. Pluto consented to his taking Cerbe- 
rus, on condition that he should master him without using 
any weapons. Hercules seized the furious beast, chained 
him, choked him into submission, and, after showing him 
to Eurystheus, carried him back to his place in the lower 
world. 

QQ. Who is the Jupiter of the Norse Mythol- 
ogy ? 

Ans. — Odin, or Wodin;^ from whose name we get our 



140 Dime Question Books. 

word Wednesday— Wodin's day. From the name of his 
wife, Frigga (Venus), we derive the word Friday, 

67. Who was Thor (Donar)? 

Ans.— The eldest son of Odin, surnamed the "Thun- 
derer " who is represented as driving through the clouds 
in a car drawn by two goats, and holding a hammer in 
his hand. From his name we obtain the word Thursday. 

Note.— In Norse mythology, Balder was called the " shining 
god." Loki was the spirit of evil. Valhalla was the banquet hall: 
and there were elves, giants, andrifwar/s. 

68. Who compose the Hindoo trinity 9 
Aks.— Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. 



Mytliologiquo* 

What were Scylla and Charybdis? Who was Circe? 
Who was the Vedic god, Dyaus? What is the Phoenix? 
Who were the minor deities, Veritas, Virtus, Honos, Pax, 
Fidelitas, Felicitas, and Amicitia? What is the history of 
Perseus? Who wore a snake necklace? What were the 
labors of Theseus? Who were Castor and Pollux? How 
did Jason obtain the golden fleece? Who founded Thebes? 
What became of Semele, the mother of Bacchus? Who 
were the Amazons? How did Odysseus succeed in passing 
the Sirens? What was the fate of Laocoon, the Trojan 
priest of Apollo? Whom did Zeus change into a nightin- 
gale? How was Dirce punished? The word " mercenary " 
is derived from what? What are the attributes of Minerva? 
Who had his ears licked by serpents while asleep? What 
maid was changed into a spider? What were the Eleusi- 



Mythology, 141 

nean Mysteries? Have you read Saxe's "Pyramus and 
Tiiisbe" ? What were the Lares? Whose sons were 9 
Cubits in width and 9 fathoms in height? How was Orestes 
punished? What pious couple was changed into an oak 
and a lime? What is the fiction of Leto and the frogs? 
What is the Salamander? How did Achilles receive a 
fatal wound in the heel? How did Penelope keep her suit- 
ors waiting? Caledonian hunt? Praxiteles? Triton? Herse? 
Origin of Ursa Major? Who was Medea? What was the 
infula f 




RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION, 



RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION. 



1. What is Rhetoric ? 

Ans. — It is the science which treats of discourse; and 
by discourse is meant any expression of thought by means 
of language. Discourse may be either oral or written. 

Note.— Rhetoric in its primary signification referred solely to 
the art of oratory, as is shown in the etymology of the word, the 
original Greek prjropikr} (rhetorike) meaning the art of 
speaking, from the verb peoo (rheo) to speak. 

2. What are the divisions of Rhetoric ? 

Ans. — Two; Style and Invention. 

Note.— Rhetoric may be regarded as both a science and an art. 
As a science, it investigates, analyzes, and defines the principles 
of good writing; as an art, it enables us to apply these principles, 
or, in other words, teaches us the best method of communicating 
our thoughts. 

3. Define Style. 

Ans, — It is that part of Rhetoric which treats of the 
mode of expression. The word Style comes from the 
Latin stylus, a small steel instrument used by the Romans 
for writing on waxen tablets. The stylus was to the 
Roman writer what the pen is to us, and became, by an 
easy metaphor, the means of expressing any o- method 
of composition, just as we now, by a like metaphor, speak 



146 Dims Question Book. 

of a gifted pen, a ready pen, meaning thereby a gifted or 
a ready author. 

4 What topics are included in Style ? 

Ans.-—1, Punctuation and Capitals; 2, Diction; 8, Sen- 
tences; 4, Figures; 5, Special Properties of Style ; 6, Versi- 
fleatien; 7, Poetry; 8, Prose Composition. 

5. Discriminate between Grammar and Rhet- 
oric? 

Ans.— Any verbal expression of thought, even in its 
lowest and plainest forms, brings us within the domain of 
Grammar. But, beyond the bare expression of the mean- 
ing, we can conceive of it as being uttered awkwardly or 
elegantly, plainly or figuratively, concisely or diffusely, 
and in a great variety of other ways; and the considera- 
tion of these various methods of expression takes U3 at 
once beyond the region of Grammar, and brings into that 
of Rhetoric. 

Note.— Rhetoric is closely allied, on the one side, to Grammar, 
which determines the laws of language, and, on the other, to 
Logic, which determines the laws of thought, An expression may 
violate no rule, either of Grammar or of Logic, and yet be rheto- 
rically incorrect. 

6. How may taste be defined ? 

Ans. — As " the power of receiving pleasu. from the 
beauties of nature and of art." Its characters are delicacy 
and correctness. It is a faculty common in some degree to 
all men. It may be improved by study, comparison, ob- 
servation, and discussion. 

Query.— For what end do we study Rhetoric? What is the best 
style? Give five rules for using capital letters correctly. Give a 



RHETO&IO AHD COMPOSITION. 147 

general rule for the use of the comma, colon, and semicolon. Re- 
write the following selection, restoring capitals and punctuation 
marks:— 

know then this truth enough for man to know 

virtue alone is happiness below pope 

7. What term do the French apply to rhetoric 

and kindred branches ? 

Ans. — Belles-lettres. At the Lyceum of Arts in Paris, 
this department comprehends general grammar, languages, 
rhetoric, geography, history, antiquities, and mathematics. 
In America, the term is generally used in a more limited 
sense, to denote polite literature, including criticism, taste, 
the pleasures of the imagination, etc 

8. What is Criticism % 

Ans. — The art of judging with propriety concerning any 
object or combination of objects. Every branch of lit- 
erary study, as well as each of the arts, has its proper 
criticism. 

9. What advantages are gained by the study 

of Rhetoric ? 

Ans. — First, it enables us to discern faults and beauties 
in the compositions of others; and secondly, it teaches us 
how to express and embellish our own thoughts, so as to 
produce the most forcible impression. 

10. Give an analysis of the English language. 

Ans. — The Saxon words on any page of ordinary Eng- 
lish will be found to be nearly nine-tenths of the whole 
number. The Norman-French words introduced into 
English after the Conquest are generally words of Latin 



148 Dimb Question Books. 

origin. Many "modern French words, such as depot, bou- 
quet, romance, etc., have become by common consent 
incorporated into our language. Latin words and phrases 
are common, introduced through the medium of scholars 
and educated men. The Celtic elements are prominent in 
such examples as tartan, plaid, flannel, etc, and new dis 
coveries of science having rendered an enlargement of our 
technical nomenclature necessary, recourse was had to the 
Greek, as illustrated in the words telephone, phenomenon, 
and the numerous endings in logy and graphy, and their 
numerous derivatives. Almost every known language has 
its representation in our language by one or more words. 

Note.— The original language of Britain, the old British or Cel- 
tic language, that which was spoken by the half-naked savages 
that Caesar saw, still exists. It is a living, spoken language. But 
It is not our language. Though spoken in parts of England, it is 
QOt the English language. Englishmen and Americans are lineal 
descendants of the Anglo-Saxons, and our language is the Saxon 
language. 

11. What are the seven groups of language 2 

Ans. — 1. The Indie, or the languages of India. The 
ancient original language of India is the Sanskrit, which 
ceased to be a spoken language at least 309 B. C. 2. The 
Iranic, the language of Iran, or Persia. 3, The Celtic. 
4, The Italic. 5, The Hellenic. 6, The Teutonic. 7, The 
Slavonic. 

Query.— These seven groups form what family? Name some 
of the modern dialects of the Indie. From what source are the 
following words derived: Alcohol, rattan, chintz, coffee, czar, nan~ 
Heen, caravan, squaw, and virtuoso f In what hook do we find 
written the purest Saxon? What does the term alphabet signify, 
and from what is it derived? 

12. Who first introduced the mode of writing 
from left to right ? 



Rhetosio and Composition. 149 

Ans. --The Phoenician language was written from 
right to left. The Greek at first followed it in this respect, 
but was in course of time written from right to left, and 
from left to right, alternately, as land is ploughed. The 
laws of Solon were engraved in this style, about 600 B. C, 
as also many inscriptions still to be seen on ancient monu- 
ments. Soon after this period, however, the present 
manner of writing, from left to right, came into general 
use. It had been introduced many years before by Pin- 
darus, who, according to some, was a teacher of Homer. 

13. How have rules in Rhetoric been formed ? 
Ans. — From examination and comparison of those 

great productions which in all ages have elicited the 
admiration of men, Thus Aristotle, who was the first to 
lay down rules for unity of action in dramatic and epic 
poetry, did not arrive at them by a train of inductive rea- 
soning, but by close observation of Sophocles and Homer. 

14. What is Diction 1 

Ans. — It is that part of Rhetoric which treats of the 
selection and the right use of words. The importance of 
having a great number of words at one's command cannot 
be over-stated. Some persons have by nature a special 
talent for this species of acquisition. An acquired talent 
is to be obtained only by an enlarged course of reading, 
by habits of observation in regard to words met with, and 
by linguistic studies. 

15. What are the divisions of this subject ? 
Ans.— Purity, Propriety and Precision, The only 

standard of purity is the practice of the best writers and 
speakers. A violation of this standard is called a Barbar- 
ism. 



150 Dime Question Books. 

Query.— What are obsolete words? What is meant by sus- 
pended animation of words? What is meant by florid, nervous, or 
labored style? Of what kind of style is the following an example? 

Beside yon straggling fence that skirts the way 

With blossomed furze unprofltably gay; 

There, in his noisy mansion, skilled to rule, 

The village master taught his little school. 



16. What is the law of verbal formation? 

Aars,— That the component parts of a word should be of 
similar linguistic formation, This rule is violated when a 
word is made-up of two parts, one of which is Saxon, the 
other Greek or Latin. 

Note.— The termination -ity, which is of Latin origin, corre- 
sponds in meaning to the termination -ness, which is Saxon. Ity 
should therefore be used in making words from Latin stems : ness, 
In forming words from Saxon stems. Telegraph is legitimate, but 
cablegraphis barbarous. "Which of the following are pure? Gal- 
lantness, fastly, obligate, walkist, converser, preventative, incer- 
tain. 

1?. What is the safest plan in regard to new 

words ? 

Ans.— That stated by Pope in his Essay on Criticism— 
" In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold, 
Alike fantastic, if too new or old; 
Be not the first by whom trie new is trled t 
Nor yet the last to lay the old aside." 

18. What is Campbell's Law ? 

Ans.— The Use which determines authoritatively wheth- 
er a word is legitimate must have these three marks: 1, 
It must be Refutable, or that of educated people, as op- 
posed to that of the ignorant and vulgar; 2, It must be 
National, as opposed to what is either local or technical; 
3, It must be Pkesent, as opposed to what is obsolete. 



Rhjstoeio and Composition. 151 

Norn.— In former years, there was a passion for Latin, as there 
Is at present a great fondness for French; and Gallicisms, or 
words and idioms from this language, are abundantly interspersed 
In the current compositions of the day. But all this is wholly 
unnecessary, and savors of pedantry and affectation. 



19. What is the difference between purity 
and propriety ? 

Ans. — Parity of diction refers simply to the question 
■whether a word is, or is not, in good and current use, as 
an established part of the language; but propriety asks 
whether the word is used correctly in the sentence in 
which it occurs; that is, does it express the meaning of 
the writer, 

Note.— A constant use of the Dictionary and observation of 
the way in which words are used by good authors are the proper 
methods of obtaining propriety of diction. Words change from 
their original and etymological meaning, as illustrated in the case 
of liquidate, which once meant " to meet," whereas it now means 
"to pay a debt." 

Query,— What distinction should be observed in the use of 
falseness, falsity, and falsehood f Are husband and wife a mar- 
ried couple ? What are solecisms, vulgarisms, colloquialisms, pro- 
vincialisms, and technical terms ? What are synonyms ? 

20. Define Precision. 

Ans.— That property of style which consists in the use 
of such words as exactly convey the meaning. The term 
is derived from the Latin pmcidere, to cut off, which shows 
how it is used. This can be very forcibly illustrated by 
the different uses of surprise, astonish, amaze, and confound. 
Make the necessary alterations in the following by strik- 
ing out the offending word:— M. D.'s death has left a 
(vacant or empty) seat in the House.— Lemons are (healthy 



152 Dime Question Books. 

or healthful).— He has eaten (enough or sufficient) and 
must go. —Morse (invented or discovered) the telegraph. 

Note.— Som6 rhetoricians use a fourth division of style called 
Perspicuity, which, to a certain extent, involves the three already 
considered. Its purpose is to distinctly indicate the meaning of 
the writer or speaker. 

21. What are the faults opposed to Per- 
spicuity ? 

Ans. — Obscurity, Equivocation, and Ambiguity, The 
first is the result of a variety of causes, such as an improper 
ellipsis, bad arrangement, complicated sentential structure, 
the use of technical terms, etc. 

22. What is a Sentence ? 

Ans.— Aristotle's definition is, "A form of a speech 
which hath a beginning and an end within itself, and is of 
such a length as to be easily comprehended at once." 

23. What is the Rhetorical Classification of 

sentences ? 

Ans. — They are divided into Periodic, Loose, Balanced, 
Short, and Long, A periodic sentence is one in which the 
several members are linked together, and hang upon one 
another so that the sense of the whole is not brought out 
till the close. A loose sentence is one where the sense is 
formed into short independent propositions, each complete 
within itself. A balanced sentence is one containing two 
clauses which are similar in form and to some extent con- 
trasted in meaning. The terms short and long are self- 
explanatory. 

24. Give examples of these five classes. 



KhETORIC AMD COMPOSITION. 153 

Ans. — " If you look about you, and consider the lives 
of others as well as your own; if you think how few are 
born with honor, and how many die without name or chil- 
dren; how little beauty we see, and how few friends we 
hear of, how many diseases, and how much poverty there 
is in the world ; you will fall down upon your knees, and, 
instead of repining at one affliction, will admire so many 
blessings which you have received from the hand of God." 
2. "We came to our journey's end, | at last, j with no small 
difficulty, I after much fatigue, j through deep roads, | and 
bad weather. 3. Worth makes the man, the want of it 
the fellow. 4 and 5 unnoted. 

25. How is clearness in the construction of 
sentences to be attained? 

Ans.— By avoiding ambiguity, which is of ten produced 
by the improper position of the adverb and adverbial 
clauses and adjuncts. Notice the following inaccuracy of 
Dean Swift • " Many act so directly contrary to this method 
that, from a habit of saving time and paper, which they 
acquired at the university, they write in so diminutive a 
manner, that they can hardly read what they have writ- 
ten." He certainly did not mean that they had acquired 
time and paper at the university, but that they had 
acquired this habit there. 

Make the necessary corrections in the following sen- 
tences: "A purse was lost in the street which contained 
money." "I only bring forward some things." "We 
hope you are and will succeed in your work. " "Keats, a 
little before he died, said, c I feel the daisies growing over 
me. " "He called to John mildly. " " I do not mean the 
bulk only of any single object." "Thus I have fairly- 
given you, Sir, my own opinion, as well as that of a great 
majority of both houses here, relating to this weight/ 



154 Dime Question Books 

affair} upon which I am confident you may securely 
reckon." 



26. What is meant by squinting construction? 

Ans. — A word or grammatical expression, thrown into 
the middle of a sentence, in such a place that it looks both 
ways; that is, it can be connected in meaning either with 
what goes before, or with what follows. Ex,— " When I 
hear a person use a queer expression, or pronounce a name 
in reading differently from his neighbors, it always goes 
down, in my estimate of him, with a minus sign before 
it."— Dean Alford 

27. How else may the arrangement of sen- 
tences be faulty ? 

Am—- From the effect of bad construction, which does 

not help so much to make the sentence ambiguous as to 
render it obscure. 

Query.— What is the fault in the sentence, " He was exeedingly 
beloved both by King William and Mary, who nominated Dr. 
Tenuison, Bishop of London, to succeed him " ? What is Quiutil- 
ian's Rule ? What is Blair's Remark in regard to such adyerbs as 
only, wholly, at least ? 

28. What are the two main parts of the sen- 
tence 1 

ANS.—The Principal Subject and the Principal Predi- 
cate, The principal subject is mainly that about which 
the writer intends to say something. It is not necessarily 
the grammatical subject;, though ordinarily the two are the 
same, 

Notbj.— The most common and natural plaoe for this subject 



Rhetoric and Composition. 155 

Is at the beginning of the sentence, but there may be cases in 
which the sense is rendered more striking by placing the subject 
at the end. One of the common contrivances for producing inver- 
sion is the use of the expletives there and it. Qualifying elauses 
and adjuncts may sometimes precede the subject without affecting 
its prominence; e, g., ** In the vacant space between Persia,Syria, 
Egypt and Ethiopia, the Arabian peninsula may be conceived as a 
triangle of spacious but irregular dimensions." 

29. Where should the Principal Predicate be 

placed ? 

Ans. — No definite rule can be given, prescribing when 
the predicate should be placed at the beginning, the end. 
or elsewhere. It requires in each case the exercise of taste 
and judgment, the writer ever bearing in mind which 
words constitute the leading subject and predicate, and so 
arranging the subordinate matter as to make these words 
prominent. 

Note.— The words constituting the principal predicate should 
be placed where they will receive natural emphasis. The sentence 
11 That our elder writers, to Jeremy Taylor inclusive, quoted to 
excess, it would be the blindness of partiality to deny," should be 
arranged thus, " It would be the blindness of partiality to deny 
that our elder writers, to Jeremy Taylor inclusive, are quoted to ex- 
cess," placing the principal predicate where it would be difficult 
for a reader not to make it emphatic. 

30. What is meant by Unity ? 

Ans. — It consists in the restriction of a sentence to one 
leading proposition, modified only by such accessories as 
are materially and closely connected with it. The first 
requirement is that during the course of the sentence the 
sceue and the subject be changed a« little as possible; the 
second, thai one sentence should not be crowded into 
another; the third, that a sentence should not be compli- 
cated by hanging a relative clause upon another relative 



150 Dime Question EookSc 

clause which is itself in a dependent position j the fourth 
is, to avoid parenthesis; and the fifth, not to add a supple- 
mentary clause after the sentence has been apparently 
brought to a close. 



31. Give an illustration of violations of the 
third and fifth requirements. 

Ans.-— 3; ' 'Cicero was opposed by a new and cruel afflic- 
tion, the death of his beloved daughter Tullia; which hap- 
pened soon after her divorce from Dolabeila; whose manners 
and humors were entirely disagreeable to him." 5. With 
Cicero's writings, young divines are more conversant than 
with those of Demosthenes, who, by many degrees, ex- 
celled the other: " at least as an orator." 

32. Define Strength. 

Am— This quality is variously designated as energy, 
animation, vividness, etc., but it consists of such use and 
arrangement of words as make a deep impression on the 
mind of the reader or hearer, 

83. How is a sentence made stronger ? 

Ans.— By leaving out redundant words. It may be 
taken for granted, that whatever in a sentence does not 
add to the meaning enfeebles it. Every redundant word 
is so much dead weight. 

34. Illustrate redundancy, 

Ans,-~ " There is nothing which disgusts us sooner than 
the empty pomp of language." "To return "is "togc 
back." The expression, " returning back" is therefore re- 



Rhetoric and Composition. 157 

dundant. " Good satisfaction ! " as if satisfaction was not 
good. 

Note.— Our authors copying from Blair claim that the expres- 
sions, "The man I love," "The dominions we possessed," err 
in the opposite direction, i. e., that the relative should be sup- 
plied; but as these expressions are intelligible and decidedly poet- 
ical, we consider them an allowable form of ellipsis. 

35, What is said of the use of " intensive ex- 
pressions? " 

Ans,—A sentence is made stronger by avoiding the toq^ 
frequent use of very, and of other superlative expressions. 
A feeble effusion would read as follows: The emotion most 
certainly is extremely delightful, hut still it is altogether of 
a very serious and solemn kind. 

Note.— Avoid concluding sentences with the prepositions of, 
to, from, with, by. Grammar tell us that such expressions are 
inelegant; they are decidedly unrhetorical. "Which house do 
you live in? " should be " In which house do you live? " "Avarice 
is a crime which wise men are often guilty of " is properly ren- 
dered, "Avarice i3 a crime of which wise men are often guilty." 
Yet in familiar discourse such expressions must occasionally be 
admitted, to prevent a feeling of constraint in style. 

36. What is " splitting particles ? " 

Aws. — It consists in separating a preposition from the 
noun which it governs. Ex. He took it from, and would 
not return it to, the child. It is a violent separation of 
things which ought to be clearly united, and results in 
producing an unsatisfied and displeased feeling. 

Note.— Considerable skill is needed in the management of 
and, for from its use arises the apparent paradox that while the 
object of the conjunction is to join words together, so as to make 
their connection more close, yet we often effect a closer connec- 
tion by omitting the connecting word. On the other hand, when 



158 Dime Question Books. 

the writer wishes us to rest a moment on each Item In an enume- 
ration of particulars, the conjunction is repeated after each. A 
similar effect is produced by the repetition of or and nor. 

Drills : In the following sentences, make such corrections and 
alterations as are necessary: " Alfred the Great, of England, was 
one of the most remarkable and distinguished men that we read 
of in history."—" Destitute of principle, he regarded neither his 
family, nor his friends, nor his reputation." — " Censure is a tax 
for which a man pays the public for being eminent."— "It was a 
case of unpardonable breach of trust and gross disregard of offi- 
cial duty, to say the least" 

37. What is Climax '? 

Ans. — It is the arrangement of a succession of words, 
clauses, members, or sentences, in such a way that the 
weakest may stand first, and that each in turn, to the end 
of the sentence, may rise in importance, and make a 
deeper impression on the mind than that which preceded 
it. The term is derived from the Greek word klimax, "a 
leader. " 

38. What is the most noted example of cli- 
max? 

Ans. — That of Cicero in his oration against Verres, 
" To bind a Roman citizen is an outrage; to scourge him is 
an atrocious crime; to put him to death is almost a parri- 
cide; but io put him to death by crucifixion, — what shall 
I call it?" 

Query.— What Is the difference between climax in sound and 
climax in sense? What is a minor climax? Is it desirable to end 
sentences with the compounds clear up, bring about, come over to, 
with it, or to it? Should a sentence end with an adverb? What 
should determine the form of a sentence? 

39. What is Harmony ? 

Ans.— A term used to denote that smooth and easy flow 



Rhetoeio and CoMPOsrnoif. 159 

which pleases the ear. It consists in the use of euphonious, 
or pleasant-sounding words; the euphonious arrangement 
of words; and the adaptation of sound to the sense it ex- 
presses. 

40. What words are to be avoided as unhar- 
monjous % 

Ans. — 1. Derivatives from long compound words; such 
as barefacedness. 2. "Words containing a succession of 
consonant sounds; such as sti'ik'st. 3. Those containing a 
succession of unaccented syllables; as, mercinariness. 4. 
Those in which a short or unaccented syllable is repeated, 
or followed by another that closely resembles it; as, holily. 

Note.— Words which by themselves are sufficiently euphoni- 
ous sometimes displease the ear on account of their proximity to 
certain other words in the sentence. Illustrated by his history; 
he will wilfully persist. 

41. How is harmony promoted ? 

Ans. — 1. By arranging the words in such a manner 
that the accents come at convenient and somewhat meas- 
ured intervals. 2. By a due attention to the cadence at 
the close. 3. By the prevalence of pleasant sounds. 4. 
J3y adapting the sound to the sense. 

42. What is meant by Figurative Language? 

Ans.— A Figure, in Rhetoric, implies some departure 
from simplicity of expression or deviation from the plain 
and ordinary mode of speech, with a view of making thi 
meaning more effective, There are three other classes: 
figures of orthography, figures of etymology, and figures 
of syntax. 

Note.— Figures of orthography are intentional deviations from 



160 Dimu Qukstion Booxs. 

the ordinary spelling of words. They are two in number: Ml- 
me'-sis, which consists in imitating the mispronunciation of ft 
word, by means of false spelling; as, "I'll argify," and Ar'-cha- 
ism, or spelling a word according to ancient usage. The figures 
of etymology and syntax are treated of in Grammar. 

43. Name the figures and explain their origin. 

Ans.— The most common figures are Simile, Metaphor, 
Allegory, Antithesis, Epigram, Metonymy, Synecdoche, 
Interrogation, Exclamation, Apostrophe, Personification, 
Hyperbole, and Irony, Their first source is the barren- 
ness of language, and the second, and principal one, is the 
pleasure which they give. 

Note.— Figures of words in distinction from figures of thought 
are called tropes. The ancients carefully observed this distinction, 
hut at present the one term, figure, is used to cover the whole 
subject. 

44. Define Simile. 

Ans. — The comparison of one object to another, and is 
generally denoted by like, as, or so; as, " Thy smile is as 
the dawn of the vernal day." The object of Simile is to 
increase the effect intended in the main assertion, whether 
that intention be to exalt or to degrade, to dignify or to 
burlesque. 

Note.— Similes which have become trite and commonplace 
should not be used. Neither should those drawn from ob- 
jects in which the likeness is too faint and remote (far-fetched), 
or those drawn from objects with which ordinary readers are un- 
acquainted, be introduced into speech or writing. 

45. Define Metaphor. 

Ans.— It is a figure founded upon the resemblance 
which one object bears to another. Hence, it is nearly 



Khetorio and Composition. 161 

Billed to Simile, of which it is really a sort of abridgment. 
Ex, * * Wild fancies gambolled unbridled through his brain. " 

46. What is an Allegory 1' 

Ans. — A narrative of ficticious events, whereby it is 
(Sought to convey or illustrate important truths; or it is a 
combination of kindred metaphors. Shorter allegorical 
combinations are more frequently called Fables, or 
Parables. 

47. What rule is used in Allegory ? 

Ans. — The principal, almost the only rule, in regard 
to Allegory, is to avoid mingling the literal signification 
with the figurative. 

48. Antithesis is what ? 

Ans. — It consists in putting two unlike thiDgs in juxta- 
position, so that each will appear more striking by the 
contrast: as, Flattery brings friends; truth brings foes. 

49. What is the meaning of Epigram ? 

Ans. — Originally, it meant an inscription on a monu- 
ment. As such inscriptions are usually short, containing 
as much as possible in a few words, Epigram came next 
to mean any brief paying, prose or poetical, remarkable 
for brevity and point, and the word is even yet used 
largely in this sense. Ex. Language is the art of conceal- 
ing thought. 

Note.— Epigram in one sense consists mainly in a play upon 
words, and so leads to that last species of wit tliat the French cal 
]eu de mots, ana what we recognize in English as the pun, or plar 



162 Dime Question Book. 

upon words. To examples of paronomasia, may be added conmv 
drums, rebuses, and riddles. 

" And the Doctor told the Sexton, 
And the Sexton toUed the Dell."— Hood. 

EPIGRAM ON A SHBEW. 

" They tell me that your brow is fair, 
And is surpassed by none ; 
To me the cause is very clear— 
You brow-beat every one." 



50. What means a change of name? 

Ans. — Metonymy. This is a figure in which the name 
of one object is put for some other object, the two being 
so related that the mention of one naturally suggests the 
other; as, " The drunkard loves his bottle*' and when, foi 
instance, gray hairs are put for old age, as " to bring one'f 
gray hairs with sorrow to the grave." 

51. Define Synecdoche. 

Ans. — It is using the name of a part for that of the 
whole, the name of the whole for that of a part, or a defi- 
nite number for an indefinite, as, " The sea is covered with 
sails," i. e., ships; "She has seen sixteen sweet summers 
(years'); "Ten thousand were on his right hand/' i.e., a great 
number, 

52. Explain the term Interrrogation. 

Ans.— We often ask a question, not for the purpose of 
getting an answer, or of receiving information, but as a 
means of expressing ourselves more strongly. It is as 
much as to say, there is but one possible answer to this 
question. By Interrogation, then, is meant the asking of 
questions, not for the purpose of expressing doubt or 



Rheto&ic and Composition. 163 

obtaining information, but in order to assert strongly the 
reverse of what is asked. Example: " Doth God pervert 
judgment?" This is equivalent to saying, with strong 
emphasis, " God doth not pervert judgment" 

53. What figure is similar to Interrogation ? 

Ans,— Exclamation. Instead of stating a fact simply 
and calmly, the writer or speaker utters an expression of 
surprise, or of emotion of some kind, on seeing that the 
thing is so. 

Note.— Exclamations belong only to the stronger emotions of 
the mind; to surprise, admiration, anger, joy, grief, and the like. 
Both interrogation and exclamation, and, indeed, all passionate 
figures of speech, operate upon us by means of sympathy. Lyric 
and Dramatic poetry abounds with examples, and Hymns, being 
mainly expressive of emotion, afford more than any other species 
of composition. 

Query.— Which book of the Bible contains constant employment 
of the rhetorical figure, Interrogation? What is Amplification? 
What was Curran's Pun? State advantages resulting from the 
use of figurative language. Give original illustrations of Simile, 
Metaphor, and Metonomy. 

54. What is Apostrophe ? 

Ans. — It is an address to a real person, but one who is 
either absent or dead, as if he were present, and listening 
to us. It also addresses the inanimate as though animate, 
and occasionally indicates a high degree of excitement. 
Byron's "Apostrophe to the Ocean H is the most notable 
Instance. 

55. Define Personification. 

Ans. — It is the attributing of sex, life, or action, to an 
inanimate object; or the ascribing of intelligence and per 



164 Dime Question Books. 

sonality to an inferior creature; as, The mountains sing 
together. The moon shines in her radiant splendor. The 
sea saw it and fled. 

56. What are the three degrees ? 

Ans.— The lowest form is that produced by adjectives; 
e. g., the thirsty ground; 2, That produced by verb3; as, 
The trees of the fields shall clap their hands. 3, That in 
which personification is combined with apostrophe. In 
such a case, an inanimate object is personified, and is at 
the same time addressed. 

57. What is Hyperbole ? 

Ans.— Exaggeration. It consists in representing things 
to be either greater or lees, better or worse, than they 
really are. 

Note.— Hyperbolical expressions are of frequent occurrence 
In common conversation ; we often say as cold as ice, as white as 
enow, waves mountain high, etc., in all which phrases the quality 
is exaggerated beyond the bounds of truth. Their frequency is to 
be attributed to the imagination, which always takes pleasure in 
magnifying the objects before it, 

58. Irony is a form of what ? 

Ans.— Ridicule. The language in its literal acceptation 
is exactly the opposite of what the author means. The 
true meaning is indicated mainly by the tone of the voice, 
the words being spoken with a sneer, and hence it is 
sometimes called a figure of Elocution. Examples: 

" Oh ! as the bee upon the flower, I hang 
Upon the honey of thy eloquent tongue." 

Elijah to the priests of Baal, " Cry aloud, for he is a god. M 
Note.— Other figures are used in Ehetoric, such as: (1) Vision 



B.HETOKIO AND COMPOSITION. 165 

or Imagery, representing past events, or imaginary objects and 
scenes as actually present to the senses. Thus Cicero, in his fourth 
oration against Catiline : "I see before me the slaughtered heaps 
of citizens," etc. (2) Apophasis, Paralipsis, or Omission, is the 
pretended suppression of what one is all the time actually men- 
tioning. (3) Onomatoposa is the use of a word or phrase formed 
to imitate the sound of the thing signified, as bow wow to express 
the barking of a dog; or buzz, buzz to indicate the noise made by 
bees. 

Drills: Analyze the figure or figures in each passage :— "Ignor 
ance is a blank sheet, on which we may write; but error is a 
scribbled one, from which we must first erase." "Are thy years 
as man's days? " ''Drowsy night." " He smokes his pipe." "And 
Brutus is an honorable man." 

**Ti ue ease in writing comes from art, not chance. 
As those move easiest who have learned to daaco." 

M I am dying— Egypt— dying; 
Hark! the insulting foemau's cry« 
They are coming! Quick, my falchion t 
Let me front them ere I die. 
Oh ! no more amid the battle 
Will my heart exulting swell, 
Isis and Osiris guard thee. 
Clisopatk a— Home— fare well J" 

50, Name the Special Properties of Style. 

Ans. — Sublimity, Beauty, Wit, and Humor. The term 
Sublimity, for which Grandeur is by some used as an 
equivalent, is applied to great and noble objects which pro- 
duce a sort of internal elevation and expansion. The 
principal source of the sublime is might, or power in a 
state of active exertion. 

60. "What are the various sources of Sublim- 
ity? 

Ans. — The simplest form in which sublimity develops 
itself is vastness. The second circumstance that may be 



166 Dime Question Books. 

named as producing a feeling of the sublime is' great power. 
A third source is a certain degree of awfulness and solemnity. 
A fourth is obscurity. Another is great loudness of sound. 
And last, hut not least, is that feeling awakened by the 
contemplation of anything strikingly great or noble in 
human actions; usually called the morally sublime. 

61. What are examples of moral sublimity ? 

Aks.— 1. Generous self-sacrifice, as instanced in the 
case of Damon and Pythias; Coriolauus and his mother; 
Codrus, the last Athenian king. 2. Self possession and 
fearlessness, as illustrated in the case of Cassar crossing 
the stbrmy sea. 3. Exalted patriotism, as exhibited in the 
dying moments of Wolfe, Montcalm, and Warren. 

62. Relate incidents illustrating these charao* 
teristics. 

Aws. — An example of heroism is shown by Mucius 
Bcsevola, thrusting his arm into JPorsenna's camp-fire, to 
show how he scorned his threatened tortures, and keeping 
it there ^with unmoved countenance till it was entirely con- 
sumed. Porsenna was so struck with the act that he gave 
the youth, who had come to murder him, his life, and 
subsequently negotiated a peace with Rome. An English 
transport, carrying passengers and troops, sprang a leak 
upon the Indian Ocean. Held to their duty by a young 
ensign, the four hundred troops gave up the life-boats to 
the passengers; and, forming in rank and file on the deck 
as the loaded boats sailed off to a safe distance, the pas- 
sengers caught the sound of the young Ensign's voice, as 
he shouted, standing face to face with death: "Fire, my 
boys, a parting salute to Old England!" There came a 
volley of musketry, and when the smoke had cleared 



Rhetokio and Composition. 167 

away, not even a floating spar told where the vessel and 
her gallant freight had gone down beneath the waters. 

Note.— Darkness, solitude and silence, which have a tendency 
to fill the mind with awe, contribute much to sublimity. Night 
scenes are generally the most sublime. The supernatural, includ- 
ing ghosts and goblins, enters into its composition. It is only a 
particular kind of loud sound that produces the feeling of sublim- 
ity. It is the roar of the storm, the cataract, or the bursting of a 
eannon, and not the shriek of the locomotive. 

63. What are the essentials of sublimity in a 

literary composition ? 

Ans.— First, it is necessary that the subject be sublime; 
that the description be of natural objects capable of pro- 
ducing the emotion of grandeur; or, in other words, of 
what is vast, mighty, magnificent, obscure, dark, solemn, 
loud, pathetic, or terrible. To give effect to the descrip- 
tion, a clear, strong, concise and simple style must be 
employed. The greatest thoughts must be presented in 
the fewest words. Simplicity is no less essential, and the 
writer's own enthusiasm must be awakened, or he cannot 
hope to excite emotion in others. Blank verse, owing to 
its freedom and variety, is the best medium for the expres- 
sion of sublime ideas. 

64. To what fanlts are writers of the sublime 

liable? 

Ans.— Frigidity and Bombast. The first consists in 
degrading an object or sentiment which is sublime in 
itself, by our mean conception of it, or by a weak, low, 
and childish description. The second consists in attempt- 
ing to raise an ordinary or trivial object above its level, 
and to endow it with a sublimity it does not possess*. 



168 Dime Question Books, 

Buch attempts Illustrate the old saying that " there is but 
a step from the sublime to the ridiculous." 

65. What are the leading elements of beanty ? 

Ans.— -Color, Figure, Smoothness, Motion, Complexity, 
Smallness and Delicacy, and Design. The requisites to 
beauty in composition are (1) that the subject of discourse 
be of an agreeable character, and (2) that the subject be 
handled in an agreeable manner. Conciseness is not as 
necessary an attribute, as it is to sublimity. 

Query.— What is meant by moral beauty? Define gracefulness. 
What is music? What is meant by the " beautiful in writing? " 
Which is the best representation of complex beauty? What are 
the two divisions of Figure? 

66. Give the definition of Wit. 

Ans.— It is that quality of thoughts and expressions 
which excites in the mind an agreeable surprise, not by 
means of anything marvellous in the subject, but merely 
by employing a peculiar Imagery, or presenting in a novel 
and singular relation ideas remotely connected* 

67. How is this agreeable surprise produced ? 

Ans. — 1. By degrading elevated things. 2. By aggran- 
dizing insignificant things. 3. By representing objects in 
an unusual light by means of singular imagery. 4. By 
paronomasia, 

68. What is said of the habit of punning? 

Ans. — The habit of punning should be avoided, both 
!n writing and in conversation. Facility in making puna 
Is soon acquired, and when acquired, almost always leads 



Rmetqsio and Composition. 169 

to such, an excess as to weary both readers aud hearers. 
There are, of course, exceptions to the rule. But, in gen- 
eral, there are few greater bores than an inveterate pun- 
ster. 

69. Of what does Humor consist? 

Ans. — For the most part, in a representation of imagi- 
nary, short-lived, or over-strained emotions, which display 
themselves preposterously, or so as to excite derision 
rather than sympathy. Humor is not, like wit, sudden 
and short-lived; a brilliant scintillation, which flashes 
forth, and is then lost in obscurity, It often extends 
through entire producticns; and, indeed, forms the staple 
of comic writing in general. 

TO. What is the aim of Humor! 

Ans. — Simply to create a laugh. When there Is an 
ulterior object— that is, when it is sought by means of this 
laugh to influence the opinions and purposes of the hearer 
or reader, — then humor becomes Ridicule. In this case, 
a keener contempt of the weakness under review must be 
awakened than in the case of humor, 

71. What is Versification? Give classifica- 
tion. 

Ans. — Versification is the art of making verses. A 
verse is a metrical line of a length and rhythm determined 
by rules which usage has sanctioned. A hemistich is half 
a verse. A distich, or couplet, consists of two verses 
rhyming together. A triplet consists of three lines rhym- 
ing together. A stanza is a regular division of a poem, 
consisting of two or mure lines, or verses. 



170 Dime Question Books. 

Query.— What Is a, quatrain? What Is the definition of foott 
What Is meant by " the length of a line ? " What are the names of 
lines of one foot, two, three, four, five, and six feet respectively? 
Upon what does the kind of foot depend? To what is a long syl- 
lable equivalent? How is the quantity indicated? 

72. Name the disyllabic feet. 

Ans. — They are four in number, and illustrated as fol- 
lows: Iambus, <-* — , (awake). Trochee, — ^, (mercy)* 
Bpondee, , (dark night). Pyrrhic, *-» *-*, (hap- j plly). 

73. How many trisyllabic feet? 

Anb.— Eight. Anapest, ^ ^ — , (rSffiiBe). Dactyl, 
— -■»'-», (merciful). Amphibrach, *-n — ^>, (rgdiindant). 

Amphimacer, — *-+ — , (winding sheet). Bacchius, *•+ ■, 

(the dark night). Antibacchius, <~», ((Bye-s6rvant). 

Molossus, , (long dark night). Tribrach,^- ^ ^, 

(insu- | pentble). 

Note.— Formerly a Heptameter, or a line of seven feet was 
much in use. What in Hymnologyis called Common Metre was 
once Heptameter. We have in English the four kinds of verse, 
growing out of the kind of foot exclusively employed in each, 
namely, Iambic, Trochaic, Anapestic and Dactylic. 

74. What is the difference between Rhyme 
and Rhythm ? 

Ans. — Rhyme is a similarity of sound in syllables which 
begin differently but end alike. Rhythm is the harmonious 
arrangement of syllables in reference to sound. Rhymes 
are divided into two classes, perfect and admissible. Ex- 
ample: 

" Be thou the first true merit to befriend; 
His praise is lost who stay3 till all commend." 

"Good nature and good sense must everj&in: 
To err is human; to forgive divine." 

75. When is a line said to be catalectic f 



Rhetoric and Composition. 3*?t 

A K8 . — When a syllable is wan ting at the end to com. 
plete the measure. One in which there is at the end a 
syllable over is called hypercatalectic. When there is neither 
deficiency or redundancy, a line is said to be acatalecttc. 

76. Define Blank Yerse. 

Ans.— It is verse that does not rhyme. Heroic lines, 
—that is, iambic pentameter, — when constructed without 
rhyme, constitute Blank Verse, This is the most elevated 
of all measures, and is the osiy form in which epic poetry 
should appear. 

67. What is the law of English Yerse ? 

Ans.— The prevailing law of English Verse is that the 
feet in any one line shall all be of one kind; that is, they 
shall all be iambuses, trochees, auapests, or dactyls, and the 
line be accordingly iambic, trochaic, anapestic, or dactylic. 

78. What is th3 difference between Ancient 

and Modern Yerse % 

Ans. — Modern verse is governed by the accent; ancient 
verse was governed by the syllables, which had certain 
fixed and determinate lengths. Modern verse, therefore, 
is accentual; ancient verse was syllabic. Scan: 

" There was a gay maiden lived down by the mill, 

Ferry me over the ferry— 
Her hair was as bright as the waves of a rill, ' 
When the sun on the brink of his setting stands still, 

Her lips were as full as a cherry."— Boker. 

" The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts wore gleaming fn purple and gold; 
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, 
When the blue wave ro Lis nightly ou deep Galilee. "— Byrom 

79, Define Poetry. 



172 Dimb Question Books, 

Ans. — It is the product of an excited and a creative 
Imagination, with a primary object to please, and ex- 
pressed in the form of verse. Most of the definitions of 
Poetry which have been proposed are open to the objec- 
tion that they apply equally well to certain kinds of prose. 
They describe what is poetical, rather than what is poetry. 
A poetical composition bears these three marks: 1. It is 
the product of an excited imagination. 2. It is the prod- 
uct of a creative imagination. 3. Its primary object is to 
please. 

80. Name the different kinds of poetry. 

Ans.— Epic, which treats of the exploits of heroes. 
Ex. Homer's "Iliad," Virgil's "JSneid," and Milton's 
" Paradise Lost. " Dramatic, which ranks with the Epio 
in dignity and excellence, and has nearly all its essential 
characteristics. The two kinds of drama are Tragedy and 
Comedy. Ex. The works of Euripides, -Sophocles, and 
Shakespeare. Lyric is that variety which is adapted to 
singing and an accompaniment of the lyre or other musi- 
cal instrument. Of lyric compositions, the Ode is the 
most elevated. Ex. The Odes of Pindar; "Alexander's 
Feast," by Dryden; Collins's "Ode on the 'Passions." 
Elegiac, which is usually of a sad and mournful kind, cel- 
ebrating the virtues of some one deceased. Pastoral de- 
picts shepherd life by means of narratives, songs, and dia- 
logues. An Idyl is a short descriptive pastoral poem. 
An Eclogue is a pastoral in whith shepherds are repre- 
sented as conversing. The art of the pastoral poet lies in 
selecting for his descriptions the beauties of rural life, and 
carefully avoiding all its repulsive features. Didactic, 
which aims chiefly to give instruction. Generally devoted 
to the exposition of some dry abstract subject, it fails to 
interest the reader unless replete with ornament. Poetry 



Rhetoric and Composition. 178 

of this sort in English is very abundant, the best sped 
mens being Young's *' Night Thoughts," Pope's "Essay 
on Man," and Bryant's "Thanatopsis." 

81. What is Prose « 

Ans, — It is the term applied to all composition which is 
not in verse. It means the ordinary, straightforward man- 
ner of discourse, in distinction from the inverted forms so 
common in poetry. 

Note.— The chief varieties of Prose composition are Letters, 
Diaries, News, Editorials, Reviews, Essays, Treatises, Travels, 
History, Fiction, and Discourses. 

82. What is a Letter ? 

Ans. — A written communication on any subject from 
one person to another. The principal kind of letters are 
News Letters, Business Letters, Official Letters, Letters of 
Friendship, Letters of Condolence, of Congratulation, and 
of Introduction. Example of proper form of date and 
address: — 

Muncie, Indiana, Oct. 11, 1881. 
C, E. Johnson, Esq., 

My Dear Sib: 

Note.— The points in a form of a letter requiring attention are 
the Headi**, the Address, the Subscription, and the Superscrip- 
tion. It is-remarkable how little attention is paid in epistolary 
correspondence (generally by those who ought to know better) , to 
the ordinary form of punctuation, capitalization, and arrange- 
ment. In addressing a firm do not write Gents. It is a vulgarism, 
and is an abbreviation only of Gentiles, and not of gentlemen. 
D'ris an improper contraction of dear. 

Query.— On what part of the envelope should the postage- 
stamp be placed? Of what dees the superscription consist? De- 
fine Farce, Opera, Melodrama, and Burletta. In what measure 
Is Poe's •■ Raven? » "What is Scanning? What is Verse? Give ».- 



174 Dim Question Books. 

definition of Prologue and Epilogue. What are Satires and Lam- 
poons? 

83. In what respect do essays differ from re- 
views f 

Ans.— A review, like an editorial, expresses the opin- 
ions of some acknowledged representative organ, and its 
utterances have, besides their own inherent value, what- 
ever weight of authority has been acquired by that organ. 
But an essay stands solely on its own merits. It is in 
form entirely impersonal, or if the author introduces him- 
self at all, it is in the singular " I," not with the edito- 
rial "we." 

84. What is a Narrative 1 

Ans. — A composition which consists, for the most part, 
of an account of real facts or events; but into which 
description, arguiueat, exposition, or speculation, may also 
be introduced. 

85. Name its divisions. 

Ans.— Narratives are divided into Histories, Biogra- 
phies, Obituaries, Voyages, Travels, and Anecdotes. A 
History is an account of facts or events pertaining to dis- 
tinguished places or objects, to communities, nations or 
States. A detached portion of history, confined* lo any 
particular era or event, is known as a Historical Sketch. 

86. What is a Biography ? 

Ans. — It is an account of the life of an individual. 
When the chief incidents only are touched upon,it is called 
ft Biographical Sketch. The writer should avoid a ten- 
dency to minuteness of uninteresting detail, aud exagger- 



Rhbtobio and Composition. 175 

ated praise of the person whose life he is treating. The 
definition of Autobiography is indicated in the etymology 
of the word: avro$ (one's own), fiioS (life), ypdcpGo (to 
write). 

87. What are the principal kinds of dis- 
courses ? 

Ans. — Orations, Addresses, Sermons, Lectures, and 
Speeches. [Define each.] 

88. Part II. of Rhetoric is Invention. What 

is it? 

Ans. — It means finding out what to say. It is divided 
into two branches: 1. Storing the mind with knowledge; 
2. Selecting from this general storehouse the thoughts 
needed for any particular occasion. 

Note.— The first of these belongs to education and general 
Intellectual culture, rather than to Rhetoric. If one is to write on 
any given subject, he can, of course, know better what to say if 
he is a man of profound and varied knowledge. 

89. What is Composition ? 

Ans. — It is the art of inventing ideas and expressing 
them by means of written language. A composition is a 
written production on any subject, and of any length or 
style. 

90. What is Description . 

Ans. — It consists in delineating the characteristics of 
any object by means of words. It forms an important 
part of almost every variety of composition, and allows the 
widest scope for ornament aud beauty of language. The 



116 Diurn Question Books. 

sty lb used in description should correspond with the char- 
acter of the object treated, If the latter is grand, the lan- 
guage in which it is described should be elevated in pro- 
portion. If beauty is the leading characteristic of the 
one, it should distinguish the other also. Whatever the 
nature of the object described, the style, to be effective, 
should be adapted to it, 

01. How should a description of natural scen- 
ery be made ? 

Ans— From the following heads: I. Circumstances 
under which it was seen; whether at sunrise, at noon, at 
sunset, or by moonlight; II, Natural features of the scene; 
level or undulating, fertile or barren; vegetation, trees, 
mountains, streams, etc., within view. III. Improvements 
of art; whether well cultivated; buildings, and other pro- 
ductions of human industry. IV. Living creatures that ani- 
mate the scene; human beings, V. Neighboring inhabi- 
tants; peculiarities. VI. Sounds: murmur of a stream; 
noise of a waterfall; rustling of leaves; lowing of cattle; 
barking of dogs; singing of birds; cries of children; noise 
of machinery, etc. VII. Prospect, and comparison with 
any other scene. VIII. Historical associations and emo- 
tions awaked by these or native contemplation. 

Amplify the following into a species of narration, draw- 
ing the obvious comparison: (1) Macbeth started at every 
whisper of the wind, or shriek of the night-hawk, when he 
went to murder Duncan; but stood as an " eagle against a 
sparrow, or a lion against a hare " in the fierce contest with 
the Norwegian rebels. 

92. What is an essential condition to success 
in describing ? 

Am —The practice at noting down on the spot the 



Bhktorio ajsd Composition. 177 

things to be described. In personal narrative, we can 
trust in good measure to recollection. But it is different 
in description. Here, if we wish to succeed, and to give 
to others a picture which will be thoroughly true and fresh, 
and which will bring up to their minds a scene exactly as 
it presented itself to ours, we must stand before it, pencil 
in hand, and note down its features while the eye is actu- 
ally on them. Trace, at length, the points of resemblance 
between the given subjects that follow : Life— an ocean. 
Earth— & mother. Uncultivated genius— sm unpolished 
diamond. Neglected talent— a, flower in the desert. Youth 
— morning. Old age— sunset. 

Nots.— A good exercise is to have pupils write a letter to a 
friend describing what they did in one day; to give an account of 
the "trip" to and from school; a description of any particular 
event that may have happened to them or others, or of a visit to 
city or country. Our class-books offer a variety of subjects for 
the consideration of advanced pupils. 

93. What is a Parallel ? 

Ans.— A comparison showing the points of similitude 
and difference between two persons, characters, or objects 
that resemble each other either in appearance or reality. 

94 Define Paraphrase. 

Ans.— It is the amplified explanation of a passage in 
clearer terms than those employed by the author, "ex. 
Wealth begets want. Paraphrase. The desires of man in- 
crease with his acquisitions. Every step that he advances 
brings something within his view, which he did not see 
before, and which, as soon as he sees it, he begins to want. 
When necessity ends, curiosity begins; etc., ad libitum. 

95. What is Abridging? 



178 Dime Question Books. 

Ans. —Epitomizing is the opposite of Amplification, 
and consists in expressing the substance of a passage, artl* 
cle, or volume, iu fewer words. 



Rehearsal. 



What kind of metre and stanza is the following? 

ei With a jaunty cloak and swagger, and a jeweled-liandled dagger, 
And a lute across his shoulder, by a ribbon— blue at that! 

And his breeches, never bigger than would show his shapely figure, 
And a fascinating feather in his jaunty little hat. 

What is meant by sayiug a thing is incongruous? Give an 
example of the Spenserian stanza. What is a Sonnet? 
What is a paramount law in all speech? Name three points 
of excellence in style, and tell what you mean by each. 
What evils would result from directly imitating the style 
of another? What illustration can you give of the adage, 
" de gustibus non disputandum "? What is the standard in 
taste? Explain the difference between taste and genius. 
Have you read Campbell's "Essay on Use as the Law of 
Language "? What is meant by an ideographic system of 
writing? The following is an illustration of what? — " He 
lost his wife, his child, his household goods, and his dog, 
at one fell swoop. What are Burlesques? Give an exam- 
ple of a " far-fetched " simile. Define a mixed metaphor. 
Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" is an example of what 
rhetorical figure? What does tropes mean? Give the ety- 
mology of epic. What is meant by repetition ? What are 
the dangers of wit? What are its advantages? Combine 
the following groups of statements into one simple or com- 
plex sentence:— In the Olympic games, the only reward 
was a wreath of wild olive. The Olympic games were 
regarded as the most honorable contests. They were so 



Khbtohio and Composition, 179 

regarded because they were sacred to Jupiter, How did 
the Alexandrine obtain its name? What is meant by pure 
measure? What are the three common stanzas? Define 
the Hallelujah metre. What is a Hote? Define Diary, 
Essay, and Review, Who has been called the "Prince of 
Reviewers"? Would you write, Yours Very Truly, or, 
Yours very truly? Why? What are the names given to 
works of fiction? How do you change expressions from 
the common to the rhetorical style? What is good Eng- 
lish ? When should the formal study of rhetoric be intro- 
duced into schools? What is a Peroration? Write a con- 
gratulatory letter, Write a composition upon "Gossip," 
of not more than fifty lines. Can you write a iramstie on 
Longfellow's " Psalm of Life "? What is meant by a scale 
of criticism? What is a Madrigal? How can energy be 
secured? What do you include under the term Invention? 




BOTANY. 



1. What is Botany? 

Ans. — It is the science of the vegctaoie kingdom, and 
includes a systematic knowledge of the forms, organs, in- 
timate structures, growth, history classification and uses 
of plants. 

Note,— Physiology Is the study of the way a living being lives, 
and grows, and performs its various operations. The study of 
plants in this view is the province of Vegetable Physiology. The 
study of the form and structure of the organs or parts of the vege- 
table, by which its operations are performed, is the province of 
Structural Botany. The two constitute Physiological Botany. 

2. Define Plant. 

Ans. — "It is a cellular body, possessing vitality, living 
by absorption through its outer surface, and secreting 
starch," 

Note.— There is hardly an exception to the fact, that the 
plantlet exists ready-formed in the seed in some shape or other. 
The rudimentary plantlet coutained in the seed is called an 
Embryo. 

3. What is the Radicle ? 

Ans. — It is the root end of the embryo. It was so 
aamed because it was supposed to be the root, when the 
inference letween the root and stem was not so well 



184 Dime Question Books. 

known as now A better name would be VaulicU, i. 6., 
"little stem." 



4. What are the axes f 

Ans. — One part, the root, grows downward into the 
soil: it may, therefore, be called the descending axis. The 
other grows upward into the light and air: it may be called 
the ascending axis. 

Note.— The root grows on continually from the extremity, 
and so does not consist of joints, nor does it bear leaves or any- 
thing'of the kind. The stem grows by a succession of joints, each 
bearing one or more leaves on its summit, 

5. What are Cotyledons ? 

Asrs.— The seed-lobes. After they are relieved from 
the nourishment with which their tissue is gorged, they 
expand into useful green leaves. The little bud of unde- 
veloped leaves which is to be found between the cotyledons 
before germination, in many cases (as in the Pea, Bean, 
etc,,) has been named the Plumule. 

6. Describe the cotyledons of the Pea. 

Ans. — They make up nearly the whole bulk of the seed,' 
and are so excessively thickened as to become nearly hem- 
ispherical in shape. They have lost all likeness to leaves, 
and all power of ever-fulfilling the office of leaves, Ac- 
cordingly in germination they remain unchanged »wilhin 
the husk or coats of the seed, never growiDg themselves, 
but supplying abundant nourishment to the plumule. This 
pushes forward from the seed, shoots upward, and gives 
rise to the first leaves that appear. In most cases of this 
sort, the radicle lengthens very little, or not at all; and so 
the cotyledons remain under ground. 



Botany. 185 

?. How is the food deposited? 

Ans. — The nourishment provided for the seedling plant- 
let is usually laid up in the embryo, but very often it is 
around it. A notable instance is furnished by the com- 
mon Morning Glory or Convolvulus purpureus, The em- 
bryo consists of a short stemlet and a pair of very thin and 
delicate green leaves, having no stock of nourishment in 
them for sustaining the earliest growth. Cutting open the 
seed we see that the embryo (considerably crumpled or 
folded together, so as to occupy less space) is surrounded 
by a mass of rich, mucilaginous matter (becoming rather 
hard and solid when dry), which forms the principal bulk 
of the seed. Upon this stock the embryo feeds in germi- 
nation; the seed-leaves absorbing it into their tissue as it 
is rendered soluble and dissolved by the water which the 
germinating seed imbibes from the moist soil. Having 
by this aid lengthened its radicle into a stem of consider- 
able length, and formed the beginning of a root at its lower 
end, already imbedded in the soil, the cotyledons now dis- 
engage themselves from the seed coats, and expand in the 
light as the first pair of leaves, 

8. What is said of the Root? 

Ans.— It has no such aspiration. Growing downward 
from the first moment of its breaking through the seed 
coats, it persistently avoids the air and light, seeking the 
dark, damp depths bf the soil. Its innumerable fibres are 
many months absorbing water and earthy matters, which 
ascend and mix with the air and gases absorbed by the 
leaves. Chemical action is induced by the rays of the sun, 
transforming all into nourishing sap for the life End 
growth of every part of the plant. 

9, What is Albumen ? 



186 Dime Question Books. 

Ans.— -This material store of food, deposited in the 
seed along with the embryo (but not in its substance ), the 
old botanists likened to the albumen, or white of the egg, 
which encloses the yolk, and therefore gave it the same 
name— the albumen of the seed—a name which it still 
retains. Food of this sort for the plant is also food for 
animals, or for man ; and it is this albumen, the floury 
part of the seed, which forms the principal bulk of the 
leading grains. 

Note.— The question of a seed's vitality is interesting at least 
to the gardener. He accepts all kinds as good.for a year, and, as 
a rule, rejects such as are known to be older. There are, however, 
many kinds of seeds which are long-lived. The seeds of Maize 
and Eye have been known to grow after 30 or 40 years old ; Kidney 
Beans when 100, and the Kaspberry (according to Lindley) after 
1700 years. It is often observed that when from deep excavations 
earths are first brought to the surface, they are soon covered with 
strange plants, probably from seeds long buried. After the 
"Great Fire in London," the Hedge Mustard {SisymlnHum) pre- 
viously unknown in that locality, sprang up thickly amid the 
blackened ruins. 

Query.— What is the meaning of dicotyledonous? Define root, 
and tell its office to the plant. Wherein does stem differ from 
root? Describe the "plan of vegetation." Embryos with many 
cotyledons are said to be what? 

10. Describe Buds. 

Ans,— These regularly appear in the axils of the leaves, 
that is, in the angle formed by the leaf with the stem on 
the upper side; and as the leaves are symmetrically 
arranged on the stem, the buds, and the branches intc 
which the buds grow, necessarily partake of this symme- 
try. 

Notb.— We do not confine the'name of bud to the scaly wintei 
bud3 which are bo conspicuous on most of our shrubs and trees in 



Botany. 187 

winter and spring. It belongs as well to the forming branch of 
any herb, at Its first appearance in the axil of a leaf. 

11. Distinguish between terminal and axillary 

buds. 

Ans.— There are herbs, shrubs, and trees which do not 
branch, but whose stems, even when they live for many 
years, rise as a simple shaft. These plants grow by the 
continued evolution of a bud which crowns the summit of 
the stem, and which is therefore called the terminal bud. 
Axillary buds are formed in the trees early in the summer. 
Occasionally, they grow at the time into branches: at least, 
some of them are pretty sure to do so, in case the growing 
terminal bud at the end of the shoot is injured or 
destroyed; Otherwise they lie dormant until the spring. 

12. What is the arrangement of leaves ? 

Ans. — They are arranged in two principal ways, oppo- 
site or alternate. They are opposite when there are two 
borne on the same joint of the stem, the two leaves in such 
cases being always opposite each other, that is, on exactly 
opposite sides of the stem. They are alternate when there 
is only one from each joint of stem — not counting the seed- 
leaves, which are, of course, opposite, there being a pair 
of them. 

13. What are the various forms of stems? 

Ans. — 1. Herbaceous, when it dies down to the ground 
every year, or after blossoming. 2 Suffrutescent, when the 
bottom of the stem above the soil is a littie woody, and 
inclined to live from year to year. 8. Suffruticose, when 
low stems are decidedly woody below, but herbaceous 
above. 4. Fruticose, or slmtbby, when woody, living from 



188 Dime Question Books. 

year to year, and of considerable size, — not, however, 
more tliau three or four times the height of a man. 5. Ar- 
borescent, when tree like in appearance, or approaching a 
tree in size. 6. Arboreous, when forming a proper tree 
trunk. 

14. What are consolidated plants ? 

Ans.— Those which are formed on the plan of the least 
possible amount of surface in proportion to their bulk. 
The Giant Cereus of the Gila River is a noted example. 
They are evidently adapted and designed for very dry 
seasons, and during a long hot season in which little or no 
rain falls, their stalks and foliage above and their roots 
beneath being early cut off by drought, the plants rest 
securely in their compact bulbs filled with nourishment, 
and retain their moisture with great tenacity, until the 
rainy season comes round. 

15. What is a Bulb ? 

Ans.— An extremely short subterranean stem, usually 
much broader than high, producing roots from underneath, 
and covered with leaves or the bases of leaves, in the form 
of thickened scales. Bulblets are small bulbs formed above 
ground on some plants, as in the axils of the leaves of the 
common Lily of the gardens. They are plainly noth- 
ing but bulbs with thickened scales. They never grow 
into branches, but detach themselves when full grown, 
and fall to the ground, to take root there and form new 
plants. 

Query.— 'What purpose do bulbs serve? When Is a bulb said 
to be tunicated? Define the terras diffuse, decumbent, declined, 
assurgent, procumbent, scandent, etc., when applied to the direc- 
tion taken by stems. What are suckers, offsets, stolons, and run- 
ners? What is a rhizoma f Give examples of tubers. 



Botany. 189 

16. What is Vernation ? 

Ans.— The arrangement of the leaves in the bud. In 
She Osmund Ferns, when starting from the ground in 
early spring, each frond (combination of stalk and leaf) 
is a coil rolled from the top inward and downward, grad- 
ually unfolding, scroll-like, as it grows. This mode of 
bud-folding is termed eircinate. 

17. Name the parts of the Leaf \ 

Ans,-— The principal part of a leaf is the blade, or ex- 
tended portion, one face of which naturally looks toward 
the sky, the other toward the earth. The blade is often 
raised on a stalk of its own, and on each side of the stalk 
at its base, there is sometimes an appendage called a stipule. 
A complete leaf, therefore, consists of a blade, a footstalk 
or leafstalk, called the petiole, and a pair of stipules. 

18. Describe the Leaf. 

Ans. — It consists of (1) the green pulp or parenchyma, 
and (2) the fibrous framework, or skeleton, which extends 
throughout the soft green pulp and supports it, giving the 
leaf a strength and firmness which it would not otherwise 
possess. Besides, the whole surface is covered with a 
transparent skin, called the epidermic like that which 
covers the surface of the shoots. 

19. Of what does the framework consist ? 

Ans. — Wood; a fibrous and tough material which runs 
from the stem through the leaf stalk (when there is one) in 
the form of parallel threads or bundles of fibres; and in 
the blade these spread out in a horizontal direction, to 
form the ribs and veins of the leaf. The stout main 



190 Dime Question Books. 

branches of the framework are called the ribs. When 
there is only one, or a middle one decidedly larger than 
the rest, it it called the midrib. The smaller divisions are 
termed vein* ; and their still smaller subdivisions, veinlets. 

20. Defrne Venation. 

Ans. — It is the arrangement of the veins, and is of two 
principal kinds, namely, the parallel -veined and the netted- 
veined. In parallel veined leaves, the whole framework 
consists of slender ribs or veins, which run parallel with 
each other, or nearly so, from the base to the point of the 
leaf, not dividing and sub dividing, nor forming meshes, 
except by very minute cross veinlets. In netted- veined 
(reticulated) leaves, the veins branch off from the main rib 
or ribs, divide into finer and finer veinlets, and the 
branches unite with each other to form meshes of network. 
That is, they anastomose, as do the veins and arteries of 
the body. 

Note.— The veinulets branch from the veinlets, then divide or 
fork, and so end either in the edge (margin) of the frond, or in a 
fruit-cluster. This kind of veining in the larger veins is styled 
pinni-veined, pinnately-veined, or feather-veined, and fchat in the 
veinulets, fork-veined. To the last is added the terms, pal mately, 
digitately or radiately-veimd. 

21. What is said <of the General Outline of 
leaves ? 

Ans. — It is necessary to give names to the principal 
shapes, and to define them rather precisely, since they 
afford the easiest marks for distinguishing species. Begin- 
ning with the narrower and proceeding to the broadest 
forms, a leaf is said to be Limar, Lanceolate, or lance shaped, 
Oblong, Elliptical, Oval, Ovate, Orbicular, or rotund, Oblan 
ceolate, Spatulate, Obovaie, Ouneate, Cuneiform or wedge 
shaped. 



Botany, 191 

22. What forms are characterized by the Base 
E>f the leaf ? 

Ans.— Cordate or heart shaped, Reniform or kidney- 
sha2)ed, Auriciclate or ear-shaped, Sagittate or arraid-shaped; 
Hastate or halberd shaped, and Peltate or shield-shaped. 

Note.— The following terms express the principal variations 
of the the apex of the leaf : Acuminate, pointed or taper-pointed, 
Acute., Obtuse, Truncate, Retuse, Emarginate, or notched, Obcor- 
date, Cuspidate, Mucronate, Aristate, awn-pointed, or brUtts- 
pointed. 

23. Name the " particular outlines " of leaves. 

Ans. — Entire, Serrate or saw toothed, Dentate or 
toothed, Crenate or scolloped, Repand, undulate or wavy, 
Sinuate, Incised, cut or jagged. When leaves are more 
deeply cut, and with a definite number of incisions they 
are said to be lobed ; the parts being called lobes. 

Note.— When the depth and character of the iobing needs to 
be more particularly specified, the following terms are used: 
Lobed, Cleft, Parted, Divided, etc. 

Query.— When is a leaf said to be quadrifid ? When trisected t 
What is meant by the mode of division? Analyze an oak-leaf. 
What are pinnate leaves? Define phytfcdia. 

24. What is the third arrangement of leaves? 

Ans, — Wliorled or verticillate, when there are three or 
more leaves in a circle (wlwrl or verticil) on one joint of 
stem. But this is only a variation of the opposite mode; 
or rather the latter arraugement is the same as the whorled, 
with the number of the leaves reduced to two on each 
whorl. 

Note.— The shape of leaves depends on the venation. Paimi 
or palmate-veined leaves, wherein there are several chief veins 
running from the base of the blade to the margin, will generally 



192 Dime Question Books, 

be broad In outline— as broadly ovate, or orbicular, or reniform; 
and often palmately trilobate, 5-lobed t 7-lobed, according to the 
number of veins, 

25. What are the organs of Reproduction ? 

Ans. — The seed, and the fruit in which the seed is 
formed, and ihefloirer, from which the fruit results. Inflo- 
rescence, or the mode of floweriDg, is the situation and 
arrangement of blossoms on the plant. 

26. What is the flower? 

Ans.— The collection of organs which directly or indi- 
rectly contribute to the process of reproduction by seed. 
It may consist of essential and non-essential organs. 
Flowers are either terminal or axillary. The same plant 
usually produces both kinds of leaf buds, but it rarely 
bears flowers in both situations. These are usually either 
all axillary or all terminal, giving rise, to two classes of 
inflorescence, namely, the determinate and the indetermin- 
ate. 

27. Define the two classes. . 

Ans. — The Terminal Centrifugal or Definite is that 
where the flowers are terminated in a single axis, the blos- 
soming proceeding from the centre outward. The Axil- 
lary Centripetal or Indefinite is that where the flowers all 
arise from axillary buds, and while these buds give rise to 
flowers, the terminal bud goes on to grow, and continues 
the stem indefinitely. 

Note.— Of axillary inflorescence W8 may have the following 
kinds :— 1, Spike, a long axis or raeliis, with clustered, scattered/ 
or crowded sessile flowers as in Mullein, Plantain. 2. Spikelete; 
the branches of a compound spike, as in wheat and others of the 



Botany. 193 

grass family. 8. CatMn or Ament, slender spikes, pendent with 
scaly ducts, as in Oak and Willow. 4. Spaclix, flowers closely 
arranged on a thick, fleshy rachis, sometimes with a spathe envel- 
oping it, as in Indian Turnip, 5. Raceme, the same as a spike, 
except that the flowers are on pedicels, as in the Currant. 6. Umbel, 
when several pedicels ot nearly equal length proceed from a com- 
mon centre, giving the appearance of an umbrella. The pedicels 
may themselves become umbels, producing a compound umbel; 
the primary pedicels are then called rays, and the secondary um- 
bels, vmbellets. 7. Corymb, a raceme with the lower pedicels 
lengthened,making all the flowers stand at nearly the same height 
It may be simple or compound. 8. Head, a kind of compact umbel, 
the flowers all sessile on the end of the stem, as in the Clover and 
Composite. 9. Panicle, an irregular, loose flower cluster, as in 
Oats. 10. Thryse, a compact, pyramidal panicle, as in the Grape. 

28. When is a flower said to be sessile f 
Ans.— A flower (or other body) which has no stalk to 

support it, but which sits directly on the stem or axis from 
which it proceeds, is said to be sessile. If it has a stalk, 
this is called its peduncle. If the whole flower- cluster is 
raised on a stalk this is called the peduncle or the common 
peduncle: and the stalk of each particular flower, if it have 
any, is called the pedicel ox partial peduncle, 

29. What is the rachis f 

Ans.— The position of the general stalk along which 
flowers are disposed is called the axis of inflorescence, or 
when covered with sessile flowers, the rachis (back-bone), 
and sometimes the receptacle. The leaves of a flower- 
cluster generally are termed bracts, 

30. What are the divisions of determinate in- 
florescence ? 

Ans.— 1. Cyme, a level-topped or convex flower-cluster, 



194 Dime Question Books. 

resembling the corymb except that the flowers are centri- 
fugal, as in the Elder. 2 . Fascicle, like that of the Sweet 
William and Lychnis of the gardens, is only a cyme with 
the flowers much crowded, as it were, into a bundle. 3. 
Olomerule, a cyme still more compacted, so as to form a 
sort of head. It may be known from a true head by the 
flowers not expanding centripetally ; i, e., not from the 
circumference towards the center, or from the bottom to 
the top. 

31. Name the organs of the flower. 

Ans. — They are of two kinds: first, the protecting 
organs, or leaves of the flower — also called the floral enve- 
lopes, — and second, the essential organs. 

32. Describe the Floral Envelopes. 

Ans. — Those in a complete flower are double; that is, 
they consist of two whorls, or circles of leaves, one above 
or within the other. The outer whorl, generally green,* 
sometimes colored, separated, or united into a ring or cup, 
is called the calyx. Its divisions are called sepals. The 
inner whorl, separate or united, usually colored, is called 
the corolla. Its divisions are petals. 

Note.— If there is but one whorl, it is always the calyx; that 
ia, there may be a calyx without a corolla, but there cannot be a 
corolla without a calyx. Both calyx and corolla may be wanting. 
The calyx and corolla together are sometimes called the perianth. 
They are not directly concerned in the production of the seed, 
but are only for protection of the other organs; hence they are 
called the non-essential organs. 

33. What are the essential organs ? 

Ans.— They are of two kinds, placed one above or with- 

* In Botany, the term color means any color (including white) 
except green.,. 



Botany. 195 

la the other; first, the thread-like organs, varying in num- 
ber from one to a hundred or more, situated just within 
Ihe perianth are called the stamens. Taken together they 
are somtimes called the andrecium. The thread-like por- 
tion of the stamen is called the filament. It is non essen- 
tial, and sometimes wanting. The anther consists of a 
closed sac divided into cells, and containing a fine yellow 
dust called pollen. The use of the pollen is to fertilize the 
embryo seeds. When the filament, which is but the stalk 
of the anther, is wanting, the anther is said to be sessile. 
Second, the organs which occupy the center of the flower 
comprising the fourth whorl, are called pistils. Taken 
together they are called the gynecium. A complete pistil 
is composed of the ovary, style and stigma. The ovary is 
a closed case containing the embryo seeds, or ovules. The 
style is the thread-like portion which, when present, bears 
the stigma on its end. The stigma is the tip, or extremity, 
of the style, or of the ovary when the style is wanting- 
The use of the ovary is to bear the embryo seeds (ovules) 
where they are fertilized by the pollen from the anther 
falling on the stigma and penetrating the ovary through 
the style. 

Note.— Taking them in succession, therefore, beginning from 
below, or at the outside, we have first, the calyx or outer circle of 
leaves, which are individually termed sepals ; secondly, the 
corolla or inner circle of delicate leaves, called petals ; then a set 
of stamens ; and in the center one or more pistils. The end of the 
flower- stalk, or the short axis, upon which all these parts stand, 
Is called the Torus or Receptacle. 

34. What is a Typical Flower ? 

Ans. — A pattern flower, which exemplifies the plan upon 
which all flowers are made, and serves as what is called a 
type, or standard of comparison. The Flax and Stone- 
crop are good examples. The typical flower must be: 1. 



196 Dime Question Book. 

Perfect, provided with both kinds of essential organs, viz., 
stamens and pistils, 2. Complete, having the four sets of 
organs arranged in concentric circles. 3. Regular, having 
parts of each set of the same shape and size. 4. (Symmet- 
rical, having an equal number of parts of each sort, or in 
each set or circle of organs. 5. Alternating, having the 
several parts of each set stand alternating in position to 
the parts of the next set. 6. Distinct, having all parts dis- 
connected. 

35. What are the variations from the type ? 

Ans.' — I. Incomplete, deficient in respect to floral enve- 
lopes : 

1. Corolla wanting, apetalous, or mono- 
chlamydeous. 

2, Caylx and corolla wanting, naked, or 
achlamydeous. 

II. Imperfect, deficient in respect to essential or- 
gans: 

1. Pistils wanting, staminate, or sterile. 

2. Stamens wanting, pistillate, or fertile. 

3. Pistils and stamens both wanting, neutral. 

III. Irregular. 

IV. Un symmetrical. 
V. Organs opposite. 

VI. Cohesion. 
VII. Adhesion. 

Note.— The terms "calyx superior," "ovary inferior," " ovary 
adherent," " calyx adherent," all mean the same as " caylx epig- 
ynous." The terms " calyx inferior," " calyx free," " ovary free,' 
all mean the same as " calyx hypogynous." These terms are used 
frequently in analysis. 

Query.— What is the meaning of perigynous, epigynous, and 
hypogynous f What are the characteristic forms of the perianth? 
The following terms are used to denote the varying duration of 



Botany. 197 

She perianth j define thera. Deciduous, Oaduceous, Persistent, 
Accrescent, Marescent. What are spurs, crowiivs, and scales f What 
is the meaning of 4S gamopetalous " and " urceolate? " 

36. What is the "numerical plan"' of the 

flower ? 

Ans. —Although not readily discerned in all eases, yet 
generally it is plain to see that each blossom is based upon 
a particular number, which runs through all or most of its 
parts. Some flowers of the Stonecrop have their parts in 
fours, and then that number runs throughout; namely, 
there are four sepals, four petals, eight stamens (two sets), 
and four pistils. Mm is the most common number in 
flowers, and next to this is three. 

37. "What relation do flowers bear to branches ? 

Ans. — Flowers are altered branches, and their parts, 
therefore, altered leaves. That is, certain buds, which, 
might have grown and lengthened into a leafy branch, do, 
under other circumstances and to accomplish other pur- 
poses, develop into blossoms, In these the axis remains 
short, nearly as it is in the bud ; the leaves therefore re- 
main close together in sets or circles; the outer ones, those 
of the calyx, generally partake more or less of the -charac- 
ter of foliage; the next set are more delicate, and form the 
corolla, while the rest, the stamens and pistils, appear 
under forms very different from those of ordinary leaves, 
and are concerned in production of seed. 

38. What is Cohesion? 

Ans. — The calyx or corolla is frequently found to bo a 
cup or tube, instead of a set of leaves. The best examples 
are the flowers of the Stramonium, Thorn apple, and 



198 Dime Question Books. 

Morning-glory, Where the parts are united, much or 
little, the corolla is said to be monopetalous and the calyx 
monosepalous. Where the stamens are united in one set 
they are said to be monadelplwus ; in two sets, diadelphous; 
in many sets, polydelphous ; by their anthers, syngenecious. 
Where the pistils are united they form a compound pistil, 
the divisions being called carpels. 

39. When is the flower said to be "parted f " 

Ans.— When the parts of the corolla or calyx taken as 
a whole are separate almost to the base. They are said to 
be cleft, or lobed, when the notches do not extend below 
the middle or thereabouts; toothed or dentate, when only 
the tips are separate as short points; entire, when the bor- 
der is even, without points or notches. 

Note.— Other divisions will be found by referring to the char- 
acteristic forms of the perianth as generally given under five 
headings. 

40. Give examples of the Papilionaceous 
flower. 

Ans.— The Pea, Bean, Locust, and nearly all that 
family. In this we have an irregular corolla of a peculiar 
shape, which Linnseus (the founder of the science of 
Botany) likened to a butterfly— from the Latin papilio, "a 
butterfly." The five petals of a papilionaceous corolla 
have received different names taken from widely differc t 
objects. The upper and larger petal which is generally 
wrapped round all the rest in the bud, is called the stand- 
ard, banner, or vexilliim. The two side petals are called 
wings, or alae. The two side anterior ones, the blades of 
which commonly stick together a little, and which enclose 
the stamens and pistil in the flower, from their forming a 



Botany. 199 

body shaped somewhat like the keel, or rather the prow, 
of an ancient boat, are together named the keel or earinum, 

41. Describe the Ligulate. 

Ans.— It is the strap-shaped corolla of most compound 
floicers. What is called the compound flower of the This- 
tle, Sunflower, Aster, or Dandelion, consists of many dis- 
tinct blossoms, closely crowded together into a head, and 
surrounded by an involucre. A common mistake is to re- 
gard the whole for one flower, the involucre for a calyx, 
and corollas of the outer or of all the flower as petals. 
And this is very natural when the flowers around the edge 
have flat and open or strap-shaped corollas, while the rest 
are regular and tubular, but small, as in the Sunflower. 
In the Coreopsis, the ray -flower consists merely of a strap - 
shaped corolla, raised on the small rudiment of an ovary; 
it is therefore a neutral flower, like those of the ray, or 
margin of the cluster in Hydrangea, only of a different 
shape. More commonly the flowers with a strap-shaped 
corolla are pistillate; that is, have a pistil only, and pro- 
duce seed like the others, as in Whiteweed. But in the 
Dandelion, etc., these flowers are perfect, bearing both 
stamens and pistils. And, moreover, all the flowers of 
the head are strap-shaped and alike. * 

42. What is ^Estivation or Prsefloration ? 
Ans. — ^Estivation (from mtfous, in summer) shows how 

the envelopes are folded in the bud, or it relates to the 
way in which the leaves of the flower, or the lobes of the 
calyx or corolla, are placed with respect to each other in 
the bud. 

43. What are its various forms 1 



200 Dime Question Books. 

Ans.— -The pieces of the calyx or the corolla either over- 
reach each other in the bud, or they do not. When they 
do not, the SBstivation is commonly Valvate, Induplicate, 
Reduplicate, conwlate or twisted, Imbricated (joint breaking). 
Define each. 

Note.— When tlie calyx or the corolla is tubular, the shape of 
the tube in the bud. has sometime to be considered, as well as the 
way the lobes are arranged. For example, it may be Platted or 
Plicate; i. e., folded lengthwise; and the plaits may either be 
turned outwards, forming projecting ridges, or turned inwards, 
as in the corolla of the Gentian. When the plaits are wrapped 
round all in one direction, so as to cover one another in a con- 
volate manner, the aestivation is said to be Supervolute. 

44, When are stamens "Gynandrous" ? 

Ans. — "When they are consolidated with the style, so as 
to he borne by it, as in the Lady's Slipper and all the Cac- 
tus family. They are said to be Epipeialous when they are 
borne by the corolla. 



45. How is number in the flower sometimes 
expressed ? 

Ans. — By terms compounded of the Greek numerals 
and the word used to siguify stamen; as monandrous, for a 
flower having only one stamen; diandrous, one with two 
stamens; triandrous, with three stamens; and so on, up to 
polyandrous, (meaning with many stamens) when there are 
twenty or a larger number, as in a Cactus. 

Note.— Two terms are used to express particular numbers 
with unequal length. Namely, the stamens are didynamous when 
only four in number, two longer than the other two, as in the 
Mint and Catnip; and tetradijnnmnus when there are six, with four 
of them regularly longer than the other two, as in the Mustard and 
all that family. 



I50TANY. 201 

46. Describe Pollen. 

Ans. — A grain of pollen is made up of two coats; the 
Duter coat thickish, but weak, and frequently adorned 
with lilies or bands, or studded with points; the inner 
coat is extremely thin and delicate, but extensible, and its 
cavity is filled with a thickish fluid, often rendered turbid 
by an immense number of minute grains that float in it. 
When wet, the grains absorb the water and swell so much 
that many kinds soon burst and discharge their contents. 

47. What is said of the Qymnospennous pis- 
til? 

Ans. — The meaning of the word is staked- seeded, and it 
is the mo%t peculiar, and yet the simplest of all pistils. 
While the ordinary simple pistil represents a leaf rolled 
together into a closed pod, those of the Cedar, Larch, and 
Pine are plainly open leaves, in the form of scales, each 
bearing two or more ovules on the inner face, next the 
base. At the time of blossoming these pistil leaves of the 
young cone diverge, and the pollen, so abundantly shed 
from the staminate blossoms, falls directly upon the 
exposed ovules. Afterwards the scales close over each 
other until the seeds are ripe. Then they separate again, 
that the seeds may be shed. As their ovules and seeds are 
not enclosed in a pod, all such plants are said to be Gym- 
nospermous. 

48. What are the classes of ovules ? 

Ans.— 1. Orthotropous, or straight: 2. Campylotropous 
or curved; 3. Anatropous, or inverted; and, 4. Amphi- 
tropous, or half-anatropous. As to their direction, they 
are Horizontal, Ascending, Erect, Pendulous, and Sus- 
pended. ** 



202 Dime Question Books. 

Query.— What is the " Mlurn " ? Locate the " chalaza." What 

6 an annual herb? a biennial? a perennial? Define a shrub. How 

does a tree differ from a shrub? What is vegetation? What are 

" aerial roots "? What are Epiphytes? What is meant by the 

" spiral arrangement " of leaves? 

Note.— Some very interesting particular laws respecting 
1 spiral arrangement " have been pointed out by Braun, a German 
naturalist. For example, in the elm and many others, the 3d leaf 
is piaced immediately over the 1st, the 4th over the 2d, and so on. 
This makes a cycle, which is expressed by the fraction y 2 , the nu- 
merator denoting the revolutions, the denominator the number of 
leaves m each, and the fraction the angular distance between the 
leaves, i. e., y 2 of 360.° In the birch and others the fraction is \&\ 
in the cherry, apple, etc;, it is -§; in Osage, orange, and others, %. 
These fractions form a series in which the terms of each are 
equal to the sum of the two preceding. The next then would be 

2 + 3_ 5__ 

5 -f 8 ~" 13, 
which is the cycle of the cones of most of the pines. The next, 
■fa, is represented in the house leek and Scotch pine. 

49. What is a disk? 

Ans. — It is a part of ihe receptacle, or a growth from 
it, enlarged under or around the pistil. It is hypogynous 
when free from all union either with the pistil or the 
calyx, as in the Rue and the Orange. It is perigynous 
when it adheres to the base of the calyx, as in the Biadder- 
nut and Buckthorn. In adhering both to the calyx and to 
the ovary, consolidating the whole together, it is some- 
times carried up and expanded on the top of the ovary, as 
in the Parsley and Ginseng families, when it is said to be 
epigynous. 

50. What is fruit H 

Ans.— It is the perfected ovary. It consists of the 
pericarp and the seed. The seeds are the perfected ovules 



Botany. 208 

and are embryos of the futura plant. The pericarp is the 
envelope of the seed, or the perfected walls of the ovary. 
The divisions are called carpels. The pericarp does not 
always completely enclose the seeds, plants of the pine kind 
and some others being exceptions. 

51. Name the kinds of fruits. 

Ans. — They are three in number, viz: 1, Fleshy Fruits; 
2, Stone Fruits; and 3, Dry Fruits. In fleshy fruits, the 
whole pericarp thickens and becomes soft (fleshy, juicy or 
pulpy) as it ripens. Of this the leading kind is the berry, 
such as the gooseberry, currant, cranberry, blueberry^ 
tomato, and grape. The orange is merely a berry with a 
leathery rind. 

52. What other forms are there of the berry f 

Ans.— The Pepo, or Gourd-fruit, is the sort of berry 
which belongs to the Gourd family, mostly with a hard 
rind, and the inner portion softer. The pumpkin, squash, 
cucumber and melon are the leading representatives. The 
Pome is a name applied to the apple, pear, and quince; 
fleshy fruits, like a berry, but the principal thickness is 
calyx, only the papery pods arranged like a star in the 
core really belonging to the pistil itself. 

53. Give examples of the Stone Fruit. 

Ans.— The cherry, plum, and peach are familiar ex- 
amples of the drupe, or stone-fruit. In this, the outer 
part of the thickness of the pericarp becomes fleshy, or 
softens, like a berry, while the inner hardens, like a nut. 
From the way in which the pistil is constructed, it is evi- 
dent that the fleshy part here answers to the lower, and 
the stone to the upper, side of the leaf ;— a leaf always con- 



204 Dime Question Books. 

sisting of two layers of green pulp, which are consider- 
ably different. 

Note.— The pericarp consists of three parts, the externa 
layer, or coat, called the epicarp, the middle the sarcocarp, and 
the inner the endocarp ; e. g., in the peach the skin is the epicarp 
the flesh the sarcocarp, and the stone which encloses the kerne 
the endocarp. Whenever the walls of a fruit are seperable into 
two layers only, the outer layer is called the exocarp, the inner the 
endocarp. In dry -fruits, the seed-vessel remains herbaceous in 
texture, or becomes thin and membranaceous, or else it hardens 
throughout. 

54. What is meant by dehiscence ? 

Ans. — The opening of the pericarp to discharge the seed 
is called dehiscence. Some pericarps do not discharge 
their seeds, the latter being liberated only by the decay of 
the pericarp, or by its bursting into germination. Such 
are said to be indeluscent. 

55. Name the modes of dehiscence* 

Ans. — I. Valvular, opening vertically, regularly, and 
either wholly or partially, around the axis, forming sev- 
eral pieces called mtoes. 01 these we have four varieties, 
as follows: 

I. Sutural, at the sutures of a one-celled or simple peri- 
carp. 2. Selpicidal, when the separation is between the 
carpels of a compound ovary. The carpels may then open 
separately or remain indehiscent. 3. LocuUcidal, when 
each carpel opens at its back into the cell. 4. Septifragal, 
when the valves come away from a compound ovary, 
leaving the partitions (disceptiments) or inner walls of the 
carpels remaining. 

II. Porous, as in the Poppy, where the seeds are dis 
charged by means of orifices at the top of the pericarp. 



Botany, 205 

III, CiRCUMCissTLE, when the whole top of the ovary 
comes off like the lid of a box, as in Purslane, the Plantain 
and Henbane. In Jeffersonia or Twin leaf, the line does 
not separate quite round, but leaves a portion to form a 
hinge to the lid. 

Query —What is the Acheniumf To what class of pericarps 
does elario belong? Name the forms of dehiscent pericarps. 
Where and how is digestion performed in plants? What are 
abortive organs? What are the sutures of the pistils? Yv T hatis 
meant by the parietal placentae of pistils? What is the " organ of 
respiration" in plants? Describe latent buds. In what three 
ways is the anther attached to the filament? 

56. Of what does the seed consist ? 

Ans. — Its coats, or integuments, and a kernel. The 
outer coat is often hard or erustaceous, whence it is called 
the Testa, or shell of the seed. It varies in different plauts, 
being membraneous, leathery, bony, horny, woody or 
fleshy, and sometimes clothed with long hairs (comae), as 
in the cotton plant, sometimes winged, as in catalpa. The 
inner coat, called the tegumen, is thin and delicate, and is 
often scarcely to be distinguished from the testa. 

57. What is the Aril or Arillus f 

Ans.— It is an additional, but more or less incomplete 
covering, outside of the real seed-coats, as the mace of the 
nutmeg. 

Note.— The names of the parts of the seed and of its kinds are 
the same as in the ovale. The scar left where the seed-stalk sepa- 
rates is called the hilum. The orifice of the ovule, now closed up 
and showing only a small point or mark, is named the micropyle 
The terms orthotropous, etc., and those which express the direc- 
tion of the ovule or the seed in the cell, such as ascending, etc. 
apply to seeds just as they do to ovules. 

58. What is the kernel ? 



208 Dime Question Books. 

Ans. — It is the whole body of the seed within the coats. 
In many seeds the kernel is all Embryo; in others a large 
part of it is the Albumen. The former is the rudiment of 
the future plant. It is sometimes called the germ. 

58. Describe the albumen. 

Ans. — It is an accumulation of nourishing matter — 
starch, etc.,— commonly surrounding the embryo, and des- 
tined to nourish it when it begins to grow, as was ex- 
plained before. It is the floury part of wheat, corn and 
buckwheat. But it is not always mealy in texture. In 
Poppy seeds it is oily. In the seeds of Pssony and Bar- 
berry, and in the eocoanut, it isflesliy; in coffee it is corne- 
ous (that is, hard and tough, like horn) ; in the Ivory Palm 
it has the hardness as well as the appearance of ivory, and 
is now largely used as a substitute for it in the fabrication 
of small objects. However solid its texture, the albumen 
always softens and partly liquefies during germination; 
when a considerable portion of it is transformed into 
sugar, or into other forms of fluid nourishment, on which 
the growing embryo may feed. 

60. What is the radicle? 

Ans. — A rudimentary stemlet, which is sometimes long 
and slender, and sometimes very short. In the seed it al- 
ways points to the micropyle, or what answers to the fora- 
men of the ovule. As to its position in the fruit, it is said 
to be inferior when it points to the base of the pericarp; 
superior when it points to its summit. The base or free 
end of the radicle gives Ase to the root; the other extrem- 
ity bears the cotyledons. 

Note.— A little seedling, weighing only two or three grains, 
often doubles its weight every week of its early growth, and iil 



Botany. 207 

time may develop into a huge bulk of many tons' weight of vegeta- 
ble matter. How is this done? What is vegetable matter? From 
whence did it all come, or 

61. How does the plant grow? 

Ans.—GrowtJi is the increase of a living tiling in size and 
substance. The basis of vegetable structure is the cell. In 
its active condition it is a closed membraneous sac con- 
taining a fluid and a solid point or nucleus. The growth, 
of the plant is simply the multiplication of cells. Cells 
multiply in some cases with wonderful rapidity, as we see 
in mushrooms, which reach to a great size in a single 
night. Though most plants consist of a multitude of cells, 
a single cell is capable of existing as an independent plant. 
Diatoms and some species of Confervse consist of single 
cells. 

62. How is wood formed ? 

Ans. — Of cells which at first are just like those that 
form the soft parts of plants. But early in their growth 
some of these lengthen and at the same time thicken their 
walls; these are called woody fibre or wood cells; others 
grow to a greater size, have thin walls with various mark- 
ings upon them, and often run together end to end so as to 
form pretty large tubes, comparatively; these are called 
ducts or vessels. 

63. What causes the rise of sap into the 
leaves ? 

Ans.— To a great degree it is the result of a mode 
of diffusion which has been called Endosmose, Water 
largely evaporates from the leaves; it flies off into 
the air as vapor, leaving behind all the earthy and the 



208 Dime Question Books. 

organic matters—these not being volatile ;— the sap in the 
cells of -the leaf therefore becomes denser, and so draws 
upon the more watery contents of the cells of the stalk, 
these upon those of the stem below, and so on from cell to 
cell, down to the root, causing a flow from the roots to the 
leaves, which begins in the latter: — just as a wind begins 
in the direction towards which it blows. Similarly, elab- 
orated sap is drawn into buds or any growing parts, where 
it is consolidated into fabric, or is conveyed into tubers, 
roots and seeds, in winch it is condensed into starch and 
stored up for future use. 

64. What are the two kinds of wood ? 
Ans.— The Endogenous Stem; so named from two 

Greek words meaning " inside growing" because, when it 
lasts from year to year, the new wood which is added is 
interspersed among the older threads of wood, and in old 
stems the hardest and oldest wood is near the surface, and 
the youngest and softest towards the centre. In the Ex- 
ogenous Stem, the wood is all collected into one zone, 
surrounding a pith of pure cellular tissue, and surrounded 
by a distinct and separable bark, the outer part of which 
is also cellular. 

Query.— Is a corn-stalk exogenous or endogenous? What are 
the medullary rays f Describe acrogenous and thallogenous struc- 
tures. What is sap-wood, or alburnum ? What is heart-wood, or 
duramen ? What are the five tissues of plants, according to the 
form and arrangement of the cells? How is sap transferred from 
one cell to another. Define plumule. 

65. What are the divisions of bark f 

Ans.— The liber, or fibrous bark; the cellular, or outei 
bark; the green bark, or green layer; and the corky laj'er, 
epidermis, or skin of the plant, consisting of a layer of 
thick sided, empty cells, covers the whole. 



Botaey. 20.9 

66. What gives the green color to leaves ? 

Ans. — It is owing to a peculiar green matter lying loose 
in the cells, in form of minute grains, named Chlorophyll 
(i. e., the green of leaves). It is this substance, seen 
through the transparent walls of the cells where it is ac- 
cumulated, which gives the common green hue to vegeta- 
tion, and especially to foliage. 

67. What three elements must the plant's 

food contain ? 

Ans.— Hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon. Water, which 
it takes in vastly more than anything else, is composed of 
the first two elements, and it derives the third from car- 
bonic acid, one of the components of the atmosphere. 
The latter they take in by their leaves and roots. So 
water and carbonic'acid, taken in by these means and car- 
ried up to the leaves as crude sap, are the general food of 
plants. 

68. What is said of motion in plants ? 

Ans. — The so called sleep of plants is a change of posi- 
tion as night draws on, and in different ways, according 
to the species, — the Locust and Wood-Sorrel turning down 
their leaflets, the Honey Locust raising them upright, the 
Sensitive Plant turning them forward, one over another, — 
and the next morning they resume their diurnal position. 
The leaves of our Wild Cassias, which open their yellow 
flowers in August, are very sensitive, closing their numer 
ous leaflets when touched. At Aspinwall, the traveller, 
first stepping from the car into a dense green patch of 
Mimosa, is,conf ounded at seeing the whole patch disap« 
pear, leaving the ground almost bare, and again after a 



310 Dime Question Books. 

few minutes looking as verdant as everl The Venus*s 
Fly-trap of North Carolina grows where it might be sure 
of all the food a plant can need, and yet it is provided 
with an apparatus for catching insects, which it does by 
an expert and sudden motion. 

69. What are the two Series of flowers ? 

Ans.— The Flowering or PJmnogamous Plants and the 
Fhwerlesa or Cryptogamous Plants. Thus the vegetable 
kingdom is parted into two sub-kingdoms, known by the 
presence or absence^of visible flowers. This division was 
first recognized A. D. 1682, by John Ray, of England. 

Note.- -The universal members of classification are Class, 
Order, Genus, Species, always standing in this order. When 
there are more, tley take their places as in the following schedule, 
which comprises all that are generally used in a natural classifica- 
tion, proceeding from the highest to the lowest, viz : 
Series, 
Class, 

Sub-Class, 

Order, or Family, 
Sub-Order, 
Tribe, 

Sub-Tribe, 
Genus, 

Sub-Genus, or Section, 
Species, 
Variety. 

70. What is the botanical name of a plant ? 

Ans.— It is that by which a botanist designates it, and 
is the name of its genus followed by that of the species. 
The name of the genus or kind is like the family name or 
surname of a person, as Smith, or Jones. That of the 
species answers to the baptismal Dame, as John, or James. 
Accordingly, the White Oak is called botanically Quercus 



Botany. &11 

alba; the first word, or Quereus, being the name of the 
Oak genus ; the second, alba, that of this particular spe- 
cies. The botanical names are all in Latin (or are Latin- 
ized), this being the common language of science every- 
where. 

71. How are other genera named? 

Ans.— By bearing the names of distinguished botanists 
or promoters of science : such as Jeffersonia, named after 
President Jefferson, who sent the first exploring expedi- 
tion over the Rocky Mountains. The Apple Moss is known 
in science as Bartrdmia, a name conferred by Linnaeus, in 
honor of John Bartram, a Pennsylvania farmer. 

Note.— The name of the species sometimes relates to the 
country it inhabits, as Sanguinaria Canadensis, from Canada; 
more commonly it denotes some characteristic trait, as Sarracenia 
purpurea, from the purple blossoms. Some species are named 
after the discover, or in compliment to a botanist who has made 
then* known ; as, Kaworthia Michauxii, for the botanist Michaux. 

72. How do the groups derive their names ? 

Ans. — The names of tribes, orders, and the like, are in 
the plural number, and are commonly formed by prolong- 
ing the name of a genus of the group taken as a repre- 
sentative of it. For example, the order of which the But- 
tercup or Crowfoot genus, Ranunculus, is the representa- 
tive, takes from it the name of Ranunculacem ; meaning 
Planta Banunculacem when written out in full; that is, 
Ranunculaceous Plants. 

73. How do we analyze plants ? 

Ans. — By asking first whether it is flowering or flower- 
less. If the former, to which of the two classes does it 
beloDg? If we judge by the stem, we ask whether it Is 



2i2 Dime Question Books. 

exogenous or endogenous. To which sub-class is the next 
inquiry. The ovary tells us this. By the aid of a Manual 
we trace its divisions and sub-divisions, and after several 
analyses of this kind, the student will be able to pass rap- 
idly over most of these steps; he should ordinarily recog- 
nize the class and the division at a glance, for the study 
of one plant leads naturally and easily to the knowledge 
of the whole order or family of plants to which it belongs. 

Y4. Give the form of analysis of a leaf. 

Ans. — Life. Are the leaves deciduous or evergreen? 
Place, How are they folded in vernation? 

What is their position on the plant? 

How are they arranged among themselves? 
Construction. Describe their veins and vernation. 

Of what numbers are they constituted? 

Are they simple, or compound? 

Describe the mode of composition, [outline? 
Form of blade. What term or terms define their 

What term defines the apex, or the base? 

The margin— is it dentate, serrate, or what? 
Size. State their measurements. [ing. 

Quality. Describe their surface-quality, or cloth- 

75. Indicate the signs used in descriptive 
botany. 

An .—(1) An annual plant. (2) A biennial plant. U 
A perennial plant. ^ A plant with a woody stem. $ 
A pistillate flower or plant, £ A perfect flower, or a 
plant bearing perfect flowers. 8 Monoecious, or a plant 
bearing staminate and pistillate flowers. ? $ Dioecious; 
pistillate and staminate flowers on separate plants. $ $ 
$ Polygamous; the same species, with pistillate, perfect, 



Botany. 



213 



and staminate flowers. (a cipher), signifies wanting or 
none; as, "Petals 0." % (placed after); a naturalized 
plant, f (placed after) ; cultivated for ornament. % (placed 
after); cultivated for use. oo Indefinite or numerous; al- 
though if the stamens are carefully counted, they will 
generally be found some multiple of 5; as 25, 30, etc. t 
A staminate flower or plant. 

Query.— How much i3 a line? What are leguminosce ? umbel- 
liferce? composites? What are the "inorganic materials" of 
plants? Define proteine. When is a plant diclinous f What is 
the pleureachymf How can a knowledge of plants best he ob- 
tained? Name the parts of a perfect flower. 

Note.— Chocolate is so called from chocolalt, the Mexican 
name for the cacao-tree. The produce of several of the finest 
kinds is not exported ; the best that reaches us is from Caraecas, 
Guatemala, and Berbiee. The method of preparation is as fol- 
lows: The cacao-leaves are gently roasted, shelled, and reduced 
to a paste, when vanilla, cloves, cinnamon, rice, almonds, or starch, 
etc., are frequently added to it; it is put into moulds, and always 
Improves by keeping. The Nectarine is a fruit resembling the 
peach, but with a smooth rind. It is a native of Persia, and was 
introduced into Europe from that country in the year 1562. The 
mode of cultivation is almost identical with that pursued with the 
peach, with which it is usually classified. Give descriptions of 
Prunes, Eaisins, Papaw, Jujube, Dates, ets. 

f 6. Give an analysis of the Anemone. 

Ans.— 



Organ. 



Zife, iZabit, iVumber, Place, 
Dehiscence, .Kind, Construc- 
tion, Form, PIacentation,$ize, 
Qualities, Appendages. 



Plant, L. H. S. Q. 



U> herb 6-10' high, generally 
smooth. 



214 



Dime Question Book. 



Root, L. K. 


if, oblong, starchy tubers, with 
fibres attached. 


Stem, L. H. K. F. 


Annual, are erect, simple, terete 

caulis. 


Tp9VM t p o -P q n *» ra dical, biternate; 2, cauline, 
Leaves, L. P. C. P. 3. Q. | ^^ gegsi]ej mg . g lobed ; 


Inflorescence, P. K. A. 


Terminal, umbellate, involu- 
crate. 


Mower, N. C. 


3-7, regular, apetalous, hypo- 
gynous. 


Calyx, F. Q. | Rose form, petaloid, white. 

1 


QpnniQ T w P P S Deciduous, 5-10, spreading, 
aepais, l,. jn. r. jj. | ellipticalj imbricated. 


Corolla, F. Q. 


None. 


Petals, L. N. P. F. 


None. 


Stamens, N. P. C. 


$ , hypogynous, distinct, fila- 
ment club shaped (clavate). 


Anther, D. C. F. 


Oval, 2-lobed, opening later- 
ally, innate. 


Style, N. C. F. 


None, ex very short 


Stigma, N. F. 


6-10, sessile, simple. 



Botany. 215 



Ovary, C. F. Pn. 


Distinct, simple, oblong, with 1 
suspended ovule. 


Fruit, K D. K. F. Q. 


Acbenia 8-10, smooth, fluted, 
ovoid. 


Seed, N. C. F. Q. A. 


1 in each carpel, albuminous, 
emb. 2-lobed. 


~ , .,_. ,_ 



Locality— Woods, Monroe, Mich., (Date) May 11, 1882. 
Classification — Phenogamia ; Exogens. 
Order — Ranunculacese, or the Crowfoots. 
Name— Latin, Anemone tJialiciroides. 

— English, Rue Anemone 1 . 
Bern arks— The caudne leaves serve as an involucre. 

Note.— A simple form of analysis is given In Holbrook's Plant 
Record, which may be used to advantage by the young student. 
Underwood's Systematic Plant Record, a blank-book admirably 
arranged, will be found almost indispensable for class and private 
use. 

7Y. Name some of the common plants belong- 
ing to the Pulse Family. 

Ans.— Beans and Peas, Wild Indigo, Vetch, Red Bud, 
Senna, Locust, Sweet Clover, Kentucky Coffee-Bean, and 
Sensitive Plant 

78. What is the name of the common Tulip ? 

Arcs. — T. (Titlipa) Gesneridna, being dedicated to Ges- 
ner, a Swiss botanist, who saw it blooming in a garden in 
Augsburg, and first made it public in 1559. The name 
tulip is f ->m a Persian word signifying a turban, whose 
gay colors it resembles. 



216 Dime Question Books. 

Note,— The taste for cultivating the Tulip spread Into th% 
Netherlands, and about 1684 increased to such an extent that all 
classes began to speculate in the buibs. Houses and lands were 
sold to be invested in flowers. Ordinary business was neglected* 
Sudden fortunes were made. Nobles, mechanics and chimney- 
sweeps alike, flocked to the tulip market. Prices increased until 
a single bulb (the Semper Augustus) sold as high as $6,000 of our 
present money. At last this tulip rage ran its course. Prices 
suddenly fell. The rich of yesterday became the poor of to-day. A 
commercial crisis ensued. Holland did not recover from the 
"Tulip mania " for many years. The love for this flower still 
exists in that country. We import our best bulbs from Holland, 
and the wealthy Dutchman boasts of his fine tulips, as a rien Eng- 
lishman does of this horses or paintings. 



Notes and Tests. 



T7ie Process of Fertilization. The pollen falls upon the 
stigma, expands or lengthens into a tube which pene- 
trates the style, until it reaches the embryo sac of the ovule 
where by some mysterious process it causes the develop- 
ment of the ovule into a perfect seed, capable of germina- 
tion and reproduction. It is the opinion of Schleiden that 
the end of the pollen tube itself becomes the embryo 
of the new plant and is only quickened by the embryo 
sac, which acts as a receptacle or nest for it. Why must 
the pollen be lodged on the stigma ? As in many cases the 
anthers are below the stigma or, as in the case of the Iris, 
they are extrorse, that is, opening and discharging their 
pollen outward — averse from the stigma— , the question 
will arise, How does the pollen reach the stigma? Insects 
are the most common conveyors of pollen, as they roll 
hemselves in the flower of one plant, and then fly to an- 
other bearing the pollen adhering to the down of their 
bodies. In some cases the pollen is conveyed by the 
winds. The Touch-Me-Not is a representative of what 



Botany. 217 

family? To what family does the Almond belong? What 
is the time of opening of the primrosel of the goat&beard? 
the mangold f What is the hour of closing of the dande- 
lion, t of the primrose f 

" 'T was a lovely thought to mark the hoars, 
As they floated in light away, 
By the opening and. the folding flowers 
That laugh to the summer's day= 

Mrs. Hemans. 

What are Cohorts and Sub-kingdoms? Describe, the 
roots and rootlets. What is the cambium-layer f Name 
some distinguished botanists. What is metamorphosis? 
Define transpiration. What is "true sap"? What is a 
dicotyledonous embryo? Describe the "cellular tissue." 
What is meant by the alternation of parts in the flower? 
Define gluten, What is an involucre? What is chaff? 
Name all the parts "of a plant, and give the functions of 
each, Besides furnishing food for men and animals, 
what are the most important uses of plants? How can 
aestivation best be seen? What is Phylotaxy? What is 
meant by spadiv and spathe P Describe a labiate flower. 
Illustrate the difference between a simple and a compound 
leaf. What is a Corm? Define Morphology? What 
plant produces 66 millions of cells in "a minute? Give 
some examples of the Grchidaceee, If leaves are the lungs 
of a plant, how do leafless plants respire? What are 
Stomata or Btomates? What is the typical form of a 
cell, and what are its contents? What part of botanical 
study is adapted to primary schools? Why? What is 
your method of teaching botany ? Give some account of 
the geographical distribution of plants? What is the 
Funiculus? How is the five-ranked arrangement ex- 
pressed? How is assimilation produced? What are 
bractlets? Describe the germ> Define naked and scaly 
buds. What are deliquescent stems ? What is an ezcurrent 



218 Dime Question Books. 

trunk? Have yoii read of the "big trees" of Calavera9 
Grove? Of what is the Palmetto an emblem? What is 
derived from the "dragon-root"? What is Saffron? 
What are monocarpic perennials f Name the 8 species of 
Trilliums? Tobacco belongs to what family? What is 
the "silver grain"? To what order does the Cowslip 
belong? 




ZOOLOGY. 



-♦♦»■ 



1. Define Zoology, 

Ans. — Zoology (zoon, animal; logos, discourse) is the 
science which treats of animals, It includes every kind, 
from a whale to the tiniest microscopic creature. Special 
divisions of the animal kingdom form the matter for large 
treatises, and thus we have various sciences subordinate 
to Zoology, as Ornithology, Ichthyology, Herpetology, 
Entomology, etc. 

Note.— Natural History, in its broadest sense, is the science 
which treats of the earth and of all natural objects upon its sur- 
face and within its crust. The term, however, is too often used 
in a restricted sense as meaning the same as Zoology. In addition 
to Zoology, Natural Hi3tory also includes Botany, Geology, and 
Mineralogy. 

2. What is the difference between plants and 
animals ? 

Ans. — Animals are Jiving beings which are built up 
wholly by organic food— that is, by vegetable and animal 
materials — have sensation and the power of voluntary 
motion, and consume oxygen and give off carbonic- acid. 
Plants are organisms which are endowed with life, prob- 
ably as real as that of animals, and perhaps differing 
from that of the latter only in degree; but, unlike 
animals, they are sustained and built up by inorganic 
Dutriment— that is, by earthy materials, water, and gases— 
and they consume carbonic acid and give off oxygen. 
The Insect eating plants are an exception. 



224 Dime Question Books. 

Note.— As to the relations of oxygen and carbonic acid to 
living plants and animals, it must be stated here that the defini- 
tions given above have to be modified by the fact that Wohler 
claims to have shown that some kinds of the Infusoria give off 
oxygen instead of consuming it, as is done by animals in general; 
and that Schlossberger and Dopping claim to have shown that 
some kinds of mushrooms exhale carbonic acid instead of con- 
suming it, as is done by most species of plants. 

3. What is said of the line of separation be- 
tween Animals and Plants? 

Ans.— Id view of the great difficulty in drawing an 
exact line of separation between Animals and Plants, 
Hseckel has recommended the recognition of an intermediate 
Kingdom, to be cal'ed the Regnum Protisticum, in which 
all organisms shall be included which cannot with cer- 
tainty be referred either to the Animal Kingdom on the 
one hand, or the Vegetable Kingdom on the other. Eeg- 
num Protisticum literally means the kingdom of simplest 
organisms. As it is not yet proven that there is really 
any such intermediate kingdom in nature as is here sug- 
gested, the recommendation of Hseckel cannot at present 
be adapted. 

4. Give the classification of animals. 

Ans,-— The entire animal kingdom is divided into Sub- 
Kingdoms based upon a general common plan of struc- 
ture. Each sub-kingdom is again divided into Classes, 
based upon general physiological characters. Each class 
is divided into Orders, based upon still more particular 
structure. Each order, in regarding the characteristics of 
Its individuals with regard to their general form, is divided 
into Families. And each family, with regard to details 
of execution in special parts, is divided into Genera (sing., 
Genus), Each genus is divided into Species, embracing 



Zoology. 225 

all animals which have descended from a common ances- 
tor. Species are sometimes divided into varieties, based 
upon certain points of resemblance. 

5. Name the grand divisions or sub-kingdoms 
of animal life, giving the characteristics of each. 

Ans. — Cuvier recognized four great Branches or Types 
in the Animal Kingdom— the Vertebrata, the Articulate, 
the Mollusca, and the Radiata. Zoologists of a later day 
added a fifth branch, the Protozoa, but Steele's classifica- 
tion which probably represents tne views of a majority of 
naturalists gives six sub-kingdoms, viz., Vertebrates, com- 
prising all animals which have a vertebral column or 
back -bone; Articulates, containing those having a jointed 
body and limbs; Molluscans or Monusks, soft-bodied, but 
usually protected by a shell; Echinoderms (spiny- skinned), 
distinct from body-cavity; Coelenterates (hollo w-entrailed), 
not distinct from body-cavity; and Protozoans (first ani- 
mals) very minute and of simple structure. 

Note.— The first three divisions include animals with a nerv- 
ous system ; the fourth and fifth were formerly assigned to the 
single sub -kingdom of Radiates. 

Query.— What is a Species? Define the terms breed, races f 
mongrel, and hybrid. In what way can the first lessons in animals 
be made most profitable and interesting? Name the points dis- 
tinguishing animals from plants. What are the 8 systems of 
organs? What are the modes of reproduction? 

6. What are the general characteristics of the 
vertebrates ? 

Ans.— -They are usually distinguished by a chain of 
small bones (vertebras) to which the other parts of the skel- 
eton are attached; possess a brain, spinal marrow, gangli- 
ons, etc. 



226 Dime Question Books. 

7. Name the five classes of vertebrates. 

Ans.— 1. Mammals. 2. Birds. 8. Reptiles. 4. Amphib- 
ians. 5. Fishes. The first are viviparous (producing living 
young. The remaining four are oviparous (producing 
eggs). 

8. Describe the Mammalia. 

Ans. — The distinguishing features are that they suckle 
their young, and that their bodies have, in general, a full 
or partial covering of hair. Their respiration is simple; 
blood, red and warm; circulation, double and complete; 
five senses, and heart four-chambered. 

9. How many orders have the mammalia ? 

Ans. — Fourteen; each with distinguishing characteris- 
tics. Bimana, (man); Quadrumana, (monkey); Carnivora, 
(cat, dog); Ungulata (horse); Hyracoidea, (daman): Pro- 
boscidea, (elephant); Sirenia, (manatee); Cetacea, (whale); 
Cheiroptera, (bat); Insectivora, (mole); Rodentia, (rat); 
Edentata, (sloth); Marsupialia (opossum); Monotremata, 
(duckbill). To this Tenney adds Toxodontia (gigantic 
quadrupeds, now extinct, having bent teeth). 

10. To what order does man belong ? 

Ans. — This order comprises only one family, and 
embraces a single genus and species. 

( Order. Family. Genus. Species. Example. 
( Bimana. Hominidse. Homo. Sapiens. Man. 

The peculiarities which distinguish man from the other 
mammals are the position of the spinal opening in the 
middle third of the base of the skull, thereby balancing 
the head and admitting an upright posture; the ability of 
opposing the thumb to the fingers; an erect position; pro- 



Zoology. 227 

gression on the legs; he is plantigrade (walking on the 
sole of the foot); the relatively great development of brain; 
Is endowed with the power of making the sounds of the 
voice into words; is cosmopolitan, etc. 

Note.— By general consent of zoologists, the names of all 
Families terminate in idee, which are expressed by adding this 
termination to some case -form of a principal genus of the family. 
Generally [names are from the Latin and Greek, and usually 
express some characteristic of the animal. Names of species are 
formed, as in Botany, from the locality, name of distinguished 
naturalist, or scientist, etc. 

11. What are the three families of quadni- 
mana ? 

Ans. — Simiidae, Monkeys of the Old World; Cebidae, 
monkeys of the New World; and Lemuridae, monkeys of 
Madagascar. The first named has the two divisions of 
Anthropoid Apes (without tails), and Monkeys Proper 
(with tails). Of those without "posterior callosities" are 
the three following: 

Genus. Species. Examples. 

Troglodytes, Niger, Chimpanzee. 

Troglodytes, Gorilla, Gorilla. 

Bimia, Satyrus, Orang-outang. 

(Snub-nosed satyr). 

12. Which bears the greatest resemblance to 
man? 

Ans. —The Chimpanzee, though inferior in stature and 
strength. Like the Gorilla, it has its home in the dense 
forests of Western Africa. Both have been represented as 
dwelling in huts built in trees, and snatching up the 



2&8 Dime Question Books. 

unwary traveller who passes beneath; whereas, they gen- 
erally remain upon the ground, eat fruit and vegetables, 
and merely bend down branches for a seat, and, perhaps 
for concealment. 

13. Describe the Ateles. 

Ans. — A representative of the Cebidse with prehensile 
tail. Has four fingers, but no thumb on the anterior 
extremity. On account of the length, flexibility, and slen- 
derness of its limbs, it is termed the Spider Monkey. The 
end of the tail is bare and sensitive, and can be used as a 
fifth hand to pick up small objects, or to insert into the 
hollows of trees to hook out eggs. 

Note.— When the Ateles wish to cross a river, the strongest 
ascend a high tree overlooking the stream. The leader, hooking 
his tail firmly to a limb, drops downward, while the next attaches 
himself to his predecessor, and so on, forming a long chain of 
monkeys. This swings to and fro until the end monkey grasps a 
limb upon the opposite bank. Along this living suspension bridge 
the troop pass over, a mischievous monkey occasionally play- 
ing off a practical joke on some member as he hurries forward. 
To get the bridge across, the first monkey lets go and the chain 
swings over, perhaps ducking one or two, when all unfasten and 
catching at the branches descend. 

14. What is the meaning of " Lemur " ? 

Ans.— It means spectre, and is descriptive of the noc- 
turnal habits and stealthy step of the animal. In fact, it 
is known among sailors as the "Madagascar Cat." The 
Ruffled Lemur is the largest and handsomest specimen of 
the Lemuridse. Wrapped up in its long, bushy tail, it 
passes the day in sleep, and only comes forth at nj^ht to 
search for food. The Aye Aye has some resemblance to a 
squirrel, but the form of its head and limbs allies ii to the 



Zoology. 229 

Lemur. The middle finger of its fore-leg, long, slender 
and hairless, is adapted to extract worms from their holes 
in the ground or in trees. 

Note.— Of the tailed monkeys of the Eastern Hemisphere, 
some of the most interesting are the Semnopitheci, or Solemn 
Apes, of ^sia and the Asiatic Archipelago, one of which, the 
Kalian, is celebrated for its very long nose; the Guenons, which 
move in large troops and commit great havoc in fields and gar- 
dens; the Macacos, which have shorter limbs and longer muzzle 
than the Guenons; and the Barbary Ape that inhabits the precip- 
itous sides of the Rock of Gibraltar. The Catarrhines also include 
all the quadrumana known as Baboons, and are the ugliest 
and most ferocious of all the monkey tribes. They have the muz- 
zle much lengthened, and are often called Dog-headed monkeys 
and Mandrills. They belong mainly to Africa and the Phillipine 
Islands. 

15. Describe the Carnivora. 

Aks. — They are flesh-eating mammals, with sharp, jag- 
ged teeth, fitted for cutting food, strong, and have usually 
sharp claws; are divided into three sub-orders, according 
to method of locomotion: (1) Digitigrades, (2) Planti- 
grades, (3) Pinnigrades, or Pinnipedia. The families of 
(1) are; a, Cats, which catch their prey by springing upon 
it, generally at night; claws very sharp, retractile, b, Dogs, 
which chase their prey, catching it with the teeth; claws 
not sharp, non -retractile, c, Hyenas, with long fore legs, 
and powerful jaws, d, Minks, generally slender-bodied, 
emitting a peculiar odor, and living largely upon the blood 
of their victims: Skunks, Badgers, Otters, etc. (2) includes 
e, Bears and Raccoons, which live partly upon vegetable 
food ; and /, Civet Cats. Under (3) are g, Eared Seals, h, 
Common Seals, and i, Walrus, distinguished by its tusk- 
like upper canine teeth. 

16. Give a descriptive outline of the "King 
of Beasts." 



230 Dime Question Book, 

AN8.— Sub-Kingdom,— (Vertebrata.) 
Class, —(Mammal ia. ) 
Order, — (Carni vora. ) 

Family,— (Pelidae or Cat Family.) 
Genus,— (Felis or Cat.) 

Species,— (Leo or Lion.) 

Note.— The IAon Is known by this appellation, more from Ms 
majestic appearance than from any nobleness of disposition. In 
fact, Livingstone and Gerafd pronounced him cruel and cowardly. 
He secures his prey by lying in ambush till it comes within reach 
of his terrible bound, and if the first spring fails, like the tiger, he 
sneaks back to his covert ashamed and disappointed. His speed is 
too slow to permit his overtaking his game. 

17. What is the Felis Tiger ? 

Ans. — Another member of the "cat family" which, being 
destitute of a mane and tail-tuft, lacks the noble bearing 
of the lion, but is beautifully decorated with black stripes 
upon a ground of reddish-yellow fur tending to white be- 
neath. Its ferocity, especially that of the dreaded "man- 
eater," is fearful, while its strength enables it to carry off 
a buffalo thrown over its shoulder. Inhabiting Southern 
Asia, its home is in the long jungle-grass, with the color- 
ing of which, its stripes so exactly assimilate, that it is im- 
possible for unpractised eyes to discern it at even a short 
distance. This adaptation of the color of an animal to 
that of surrounding objects in its native wilds is termed 
mimicry, and is one of the most most wonderful provisions 
of nature. 

Query.— What is the "dental formula" of man? Define the 
terms Monodelphia, Didelphia, and Ornithodelphia? What is the 
facial angle of the dog? of man? the negro? the Caucasian? What 
Is the meaning of Quadrumana? Give the technical name for 
" broad-nose." How does the Siamang monkey derive its specific 
name? 



Zoology. 281 

s 

18. What is said of Lynxes? 

Ans. — These cats have the tail very short, and they 
have one molar less than the true cats in each side of the 
upper jaw. As examples of this kind, we may mention 
the Canada Lynx, which is about forty inches in length,, 
and of a grayish hoary color waved with black, the ears 
tipped with a pencil of black hairs; and the American 
Wild- Cat {Lynx rufus), which is about thirty inches long, 
of a pale rufous color overlaid with grayish, and whose 
ear is black on the outside and has a white patch, while 
the tail has a black patch above at the end. 

19. Describe the Hyenas or Hyenidae. 

Ans. — Of all the Carnivora none are uglier in their 
general appearance. Their fore-legs are longer than the 
hind ones, the claws non-retractile, the feet four-toed, and 
the tongue rough. Their premolars are very large and 
blunt; these animals are able to crush the bones of very 
large animals, and swallow the fragments without masti- 
cating them. So powerful are the muscles of the neck and 
jaws that it is next to impossible to wrest anything from 
between their teeth. 

20. What animal changes color ? 

Ans. — The Weasel, which at the north, during summer, 
is reddish-brown above and white beneath. It changes 
from brown to white in October and November, and back 
again in March, except the extremity of the tail, which is 
always black. At the south, the same species does not 
vary its fur. These alterations are effected, not by shed- 
ding the coat, but by changes in the color of the hair. 
The expression " catch a weasel asleep " is based upon the 
ease with which the animal may be caught when sleeping^ 
on account of the soundness of its slumbers. 



232 Dime Question Books. 

21. What is the " ursus horribilisP* 

Ans.— The -Grizzly Bear, which inspires such fear that 
no other animal daues to touch a deer that it has killed 
and left behind; the simple point of the bear's toot fright- 
ening away even a hungry wolf. 

22. What is the order Herbivora ? 

Ans — The name of the term including Ungulata, Hy- 
racoidea and Proboscidea : all herb-eating animals with 
teeth fitted for grinding food. The Ungulates are even- 
teed {artiodactyls) and odd-toed (permodactyls) and are 
divided into the following classes: a. Camels, two toed 
Ruminants (animals that have four stomachs and r8masti- 
cate the food after swallowing it) with generally a hump 
of fat upon the back, the toes united nearly to the tip, and 
cells which hold water in the lining of the stomach, b. 
Giraffes, with long necks and two short permanent horns. 
6. Oxen, with permanent hollow horns ensheathing bony 
cores; Antelopes, Goats, Sheep, etc. d. Prong horn Ante- 
lopes, horns hollow, pronged and deciduous, e. Deer, 
horns solid, deciduous and branching; Elk, Reindeer, etc. 
(All the above are ruminants, c, d, and e, have the upper 
incisors wanting.) /, Hippopotami, g, Hogs and Peccaries, 
covered with bristles, and nose fitted for rooting, h, 
Horses, one-toed ungulates, i. Rhinoceros, three-toed, 
skin in folds, and one or two horns upon the top of the 
muzzle, k, Tapirs, having short proboscis. 

23. What is the difference between a Drom- 
edary and a Camel ? 

Ans. — The first has one hump, the Bactrian Camel has 
two. The former is adapted to hot climates while the latter 
frequents cold regions of the earth. The Llama, the third 



Zo6logy. 233 

member of the Camelidae family, is of small size, and has 
no humps. Camels have two toes, united nearly to the 
point by the callous sole. To adapt the llama to its home 
in the Andes, its cushioned toes are completely divided, 
and its nails project, so as to hook downward, and give it 
a fearless step among the crags. 

Note.— The camel, poetically called by the Arab the " ship of 
the desert," constitutes his wealth. Its milk, and often its flesh, 
furnishes him food; its skin, leather; its hair, clothing; its excre- 
ment, fuel; and, in an extremity, the water in its stomach will save 
his life. It will carry 600 and even 1000 lbs. burden. A swift drom- 
edary will travel 10 miles per hour for 20 hours on a stretch. Its 
gait has a peculiar swinging, jerking motion that is terribly trying 
to the novice. Its disposition is said to be naturally gentle, but 
the brutality of its drivers often renders it ugly. Thus says a 
traveller: ''Watch it when it is being loaded. See its keeper strug- 
gling frantically, and making it kneel only by sheer force, and 
when down, keeping it there by tying neck and fore legs together 
tightly. Hear it grumbling in deep, bubbling tones, with mouth 
savagely opened as each new burden is laid on its back. Look how 
it refuses to rise until apart is removed; then see it get up -a 
great, brown mountain, still groaning and bubbling-and dash to 
and fro, shaking off beds, furniture, and trunks in a shower. 
Mark it, subdued by blows, march through the day, occasionally 
biting at a passer-by, and at night kneel to have its load removed, 
grumbling as ever. Certainly not the picture of our ideal patient 
animal." 

Query.— What animal is noted for the "golden tint of its 
skin?" Which one never perspires? Name the members of the 
Canidae or Dog Family. What animal indulges in the pastime of 
sliding down snow-banks in winter and clay-banks in summer? 
What one furnishes the choicest seal fur? What cervical verte- 
brae has the Giraffe in bis long neck? 

24. Describe the Deer. 

Ans. — Deer is the common name applied to a very ex- 
tensive group of ruminating animals, varying in size from 
the small Muntjac of Ea- tern Asia to the gigantic Moose 



234 Dime Question Books. 

of North America which is now becoming extinct. The 
group is characterized in most genera by solid horns in the 
males, falling off annually in the large species and, when 
first developed, covered with a hairy skin. They are 
found in all parts of the world except Austrailia, and are 
valuable (besides furnishing food and clothing) as draught 
animals in many cases. 



25. Describe the growth of the horns. 

Ans.-— In the young animal, a kind of hard, bony lump 
is at first observable, on each side of the frontal bone; this 
grows rapidly, pushing the skin with it. When the horns 
are fully developed, the skin envelope falls, leaving them 
hard and bare, when they also fall off and are reproduced ; 
at each successive growth the horn increases in size and 
complexity, but its duration is the same. When the horns 
fall, the buck retires into the thick forest, not showing 
himself among the females until his head is re-furnished. 
The origin of the horn is called the burr, the main shaft, 
the beam, and the branches, the antlers; the latter, if near 
the head, are "brow antlers"; if near the middle of the 
beam, median, or "bez antlers." 

26. Does the whale spout ? 

Ans.— Close observers maintain that the whale in 
breathing never spouts water from the nostrils as the ordi- 
nary pictures represent. When it rises to the surface, a 
foot or more of water over the head is blown away by the 
breath escaping from the lungs. This is followed by the 
vast body of air expelled, surcharged with moisture hot 
from the lungs, which, cooling, changes to vapor, and in 
its circling descent resembles a shower of spray, 



Zoology. $35 

Note.— The term Mutilata Is sometimes used, including th$ 
two orders of Sirenia and Cetacea. 

27. How is whalebone derived ? 

Ans. — From the Greenland or right whale, and is not 
bone, but slabs of hornlike material sometimes ten feet in 
length, hanging from the upper jaw, and serves to strain 
out the minute animals on which it feeds. The sperm 
whale has an immense cavity in the head, containing an 
oil which hardens and forms the spermaceti of commerce. 
Ambergris is a peculiar product used in making perfum- 
ery, and is sometimes found to the amount of forty pounds 
in the intestines of the sperm whale. It is thought to \>& 
a product of disease. 

28. What is the Cheiroptera ? 

Ans. — That order of mammals whose anterior limbs 
are extended and covered with a membrane, thus being 
adapted for flight. There are over 30 genera and 200 spe- 
cies of the "bat," the Flying Fox of Java being the larg- 
est. Its body, the size of a squirrel, with wings five feet 
across, is used as an article of food. 

Note.— Insectivora, or Insect-Eaters, include the kabung, 
mole, shrew, golden mole, and hedgehog. Their teeth are of three 
kinds, incisors, canines, and molars, and the latter are studded 
with acute points. Many of these animals pass into a torpid con- 
dition during the coldest part of the year. The hedgehog and hat 
fall into so deep a stupor that no signs of breathing can be 
detected ; and in a bat's heart the pulsations fall from 200 in a 
minute to 30 in a minute during torpidity. 

29. Describe the Rodentia. 

Ans.— They have teeth especially fitted for gnawing, 
two long incisors in each jaw, enameled in front, molars 



"286 Dime Question Books. 

with transverse enameled ridges. The principal families 
are a, Jumping Mice, b, Rats and Mice, c, Pouched 
Gophers, d, Beavers, e, Squirrels, Gophers, Prairie 
Dogs, Woodchucks. /, Porcupines, g, Hares— four up- 
per incisors; cheeks lined "with fur, and under surface of 
feet covered with hair. 

30. What is the meaning of Edentata? 

Ans. — Toothless; they are related only negatively by 
being destitute of incisors. The chief representative of 
this order is the Giant Ant-Eater of South America. Its 
jaws are a foot long, and it can thrust forth its worm like 
tongue to a distance of two feet as often as twice a second. 
With its fore feet, armed with powerful nails, it tears 
open an ant-hill, when the bewildered inmates rush out, 
and, stickiug to its tongue, are rapidly swept into its 
mouth. 

31. What is said of the Armadillo? 

Ans. — Its legs are very strong, and Wood relates that 
he has seen an Armadillo running around with ease carry- 
ing three monkeys that had chosen to take a ride. When 
caught, though so small, it will kick with great effect. 
Some varieties will burrow so fast that it is said the animal 
will sink out of sight before a man on horseback seeing 
one, can dismount and catch it. In Paraguay, the natives 
detect the presence of an Armadillo in its hole by thrusting 
down a stick, when, if it is there, a swarm of mosquitoes 
will fly buzzing out. 

32. Describe the Marsupials. 

Ans. — The young are brought forth in an exceedingly 
immature state of development; and in most cases are 



Zoology. 237 

received into a pouch or sack which is situated on the 
abdomen of the mother. In this living cradle they are 
nourished by milk till they have acquired a degree of 
development corresponding to that in which other mam* 
mals are born. Even after they are able to walk, the 
young resort to the pouch of the mother for" safety in time 
of danger. With the exception of the Opossums, found 
in America, this order is confined to Australia and the 
adjacent islands. 

32. What are the Monotremata ? 

Ans.— The connecting link between mammals and 
birds. The two well-marked forms are the Porcupine 
Ant-Eater, and the Duckbill or Water Mole, which caps 
the climax of the eccentric Australian zoology. This ani- 
mal is covered with brown fur, and has a long, flat muz- 
zle very similar in its appearance to that of a duck. The 
fore feet have a web extending beyond their extremities, 
which can be folded up when the feet are used for bur- 
rowing, or expanded when employed in swimming. The 
hind feet are webbed only to the base of the nails. 

Query.— What is the difference between a Bison and a Buffalo? 
What animal is sometimes called the Unicorn? The Durham, 
Jersey, and Ayrshire are three noted breeds of what? To what 
family does the hog belong? What are the forms of deers' horns? 
Is there an Arabian breed of horses? Can the Zebra be domesti- 
cated? What is the "herbivorous whale?" What animal is sup- 
posed to have a sixth sense? 

34. What are Aves ? 

Ans.— Birds, which constitute the second class of verte- 
brates. They are divided into fifteen orders as follows? 
Passeres, (Thrush); Picariae, (Woodpecker); Psittaci, (Par- 
rot); Raptores, (Falcon); Columbae, (Dove); Gallinae, 



238 Dime Question J>ooks. 

(Turkey); Brevlpennes, (Ostrich); Limlcolae, (Plover); 
Herodiones, (Heron); Alectorldes, (Bail); Lamellirostres, 
(Duck); Steganopodes, (Pelican); Longipennes, (Gull); 
PygopodcH, (Loon); Bpheniscl, (Penguin), 

NOTB.~Some authorities Include the second and third classes 
under the general term Scansores. The fifth and sixth are also 
arranged under the head of Rasores, while the last five may be 
classified as Natatores, i. e., swimming i>inis, with webbed feet 
and short legs, fitted Cor locomotion in water, it, is well to 
remark, however, that the classification of birds is unsettled. 
Ornithologists have not a» yet agreed oven upon the number of 
orders. 



35. What is tbe mandible of birds ? 

Anb. — The upper jaw, which is so articulated with the 
cranium that it can move independently of the lower jaw; 
a peculiarity which Is not found in the mammalia, 

Notk.— The "bones are light. The hollowness and thecavitios 

are produced by tlio removal— by absorption Of bony tissues pre- 
viously formed. Owen Bays: "The thinnest-walled and widest 
air-bone of the bird of flight was first solid, next a marrow- bone t 

and finally became tlio case of an air-coll." 

30. How do birds breathe? 

Ans. — Respiration takes place not only in the lungs, 
but also in the substance of the other organs; the air pene- 
trating into the interior of the bones and feathers, some- 
times even to the toes. So complete is this second process, 
that it is said a bird will breathe through the end of a broken 
bone when the windpipe is tied. 

87. Give a description of tlio Robin. 

Ans. — "Tuhdub miokatokuih, Robin, American Red- 
breast. Tail slightly rounded; above olive gray; top and 



Zoology. 239 

sides of the bead black, chin and throat white; eyelids and 
a Spot above the eye, anteriorly white; under parts and in- 
side of the wings chestnut-brown; the under tail coverts 
and tibiae white, showing the plumbeous inner portions 
of the feal hers; wings dark-brown; the feathers all edged 
more or less with pale ash; tail still darker, the extreme 
feathers tipped with white; bill yellow, dusky along the 
ridge and at the tip. Length 0.75; wing 5.43; tail 4.75; 
tarsus 1.25 inches, Habitat, whole of N. A." 

38. Give an example of the Laniidae. 

Ans- The Shrike or Butcherbird, which devours the 
larger Insects and smaller birds after striking them sense- 
less by one blow upon the head with its powerful toothed 
beak. 

31>. Which is the largest of the OorvidaeJ 

Ank. — The Raven, which is about two feet long and 
readily distinguished from the Crow, not only by its larger 
size, but by the feathers of the throat, which are long, 
acute and separated. 

Note.— The Raven Is generally considered to ho of evil omen. 
It is easily tamed and taught to repeat sentences. Pliny tells of 

One Which was accustomed to stand in a public place in Koine, 
and call OUt the name ol every passer-by. Then Is a story re- 
lated of an awkward horseman who fell from his seat, and at that 
moment a raven in the tree above cried out, with Its solemn voice, 
"How silly!" 

40. What areTrochilidae? 

Ans. — Humming birds. They are birds of the smallest 
size and of the most gorgeous plumage to be found in the 
feathered race. About 400 species are recognized, yet only 
one, the Ruby-tliroakd, visits the North Atlantic States, 



240 Dime Question Books. 

and but ten, any part of: the United States. Their food 
consists of insects and! honey, which are secured by ex- 
tending the tongue into flowers without opening the bill 
very wide^ 

41. Which bird has a bill almost as long as 
its body I 

Ans. — The Toucan (E/iamp7iaslidae), The bill is light, 
being cellular in its structure, and is serrated on its edges. 
The Ivory billed Woodpecker is the largest north of Central 
America. With its wedge shaped bill it can bore a hole 
three feet deep for its nest in the trunk of a living tree. 

42. Name the families of the Raptores. 

Ans. — The Strigidae (Owl) Falconidae (Hawk) and 
Cathartidae (Vulture). Among all the rapacious birds, 
none are more remarkable in their appearance than the 
Owls. These birds have a comparatively short body, very 
loose plumage, very large head, very large eyes directed for- 
ward, a curved bill nearly concealed by bristle-like 
feathers, and large ear cavities; and the whole expression, 
of the face is decidedly cat-like. This extensive family is 
cosmopolitan, several species being circumpolar, and at 
least two existing all over the world, unless Australia be 
an exception. The tremulous and doleful notes of the 
little Mottled or Screech Owl, the prolonged and painful 
cry of the Long-eared Owl, the grating noise of the little 
Acadian or Saw-whet Owl, are sounds most unwelcome to 
him who has not yet learned the harmless nature of the 
beings from which they come. 

43. Which are the scavengers among birds? 
An s.— The Vultures. To this family belong the Cali 



Zoology. 241 

forma Vulture, the Black Vulture, the Turkey Buzzard,, 
and the Condor of the Andes. They are the most numer« 
ous in warm countries, where they serve a most important 
purpose in removing dead and decaying animals. They 
are generally inoffensive, seldom capturing their food! 
unless forced to do so by hunger. 

44. What is the meaning of Columbss ? 

Ans. — The name is derived from the Latin columba, a 
pigeon. The Wild or Passenger Pigeon, of North Amer- 
ica, is seventeen inches long, and has the upper parts blue, 
under parts mainly purplish red, and the sides and back of 
the neck a glossy golden- violet. This Pigeon is extremely 
rapid in flight, being able to perform a long journey at 
an average speed of a mile a minute! The migra- 
tions are for the purpose of procuring food (?), and hence 
do not take place at any particular season of the year. 
Millions of pigeons often associate in a single roost, com- 
pletely filling a forest for thirty or forty miles in length 
and several miles in breadth, and literally loading and 
breaking down large trees. Sometimes in their migra- 
tions they fill the air like a cloud, and thus continue to 
pass for a whole day, or even for two or three successive 
days. 

45. "What is the difference between the Quail 
and the Partridge ? 

Ans. — In New England the Perdicidae (Partridges) are 
called Quails. The true quail is found in the Old World, 
and is migratory in habit, leaving Africa in the spring, 
and returning from Europe in the autumn. The Ruffled 
Grouse is called partridge in New England and the West, 
and pheasant in the Middle and Southern States. 



242 Dime QraB8Ti« Books. 

46. Name the " short-winged " birds. 

Ans. — The Ostrich and the Apteryx. The former is 
the largest living bird. It will run thirty miles an hour, 
and is captured by the Arabs on their fleet steeds only 
after a chase of a day or two, by several relays of horses 
and riders, and by pursuing in a straight line while the 
bird runs in a curve. Its feet are two-toed, and the outer 
toe is destitute of a nail. Its eggs weigh about three 
pounds each. The South American Ostrich or Rhea, is 
much smaller and has three toes, each provided with a 
nail. 

Query.— Have you read about the Ostrich farms of Cape Col- 
ony? What bird has no tail? How is the plumage of birds ren- 
dered waterproof? How often do birds moult tkeir feathers? For 
what is the mocking bird remarkable? At what rate do swallows 
fly? What is the technical name of the Chickadee? Where is the 
parrot found in the United States? 

47. What are Grallatores (waders) 1 } 

Ans. — The old name for the three orders of Limicolae, 
Heriodiones, and Alectorides. The Oyster-catchers have 
the bill acute in one genera, truncate in another, and in all 
cases hard, and the legs short and brightly colored. Those 
with a truncate bill pry open the shells of bivalve mol- 
lusks to eat the animal; those with an acute bill turn over 
pebbles in search of food. The most common species is 
about eight inches long. 

48. What is said of the White Stork ? 

Ans. — It is exceedingly useful, feeding upon garbage 
and noxious creatures. A tame stork has been known to 
join children playing hide and seek, run when touched, 
and to distinguish the child whose turn it was to pursue 
the rest so well as to be on its guard along with the others. 



Zoology. MS 

The Germans and Dutch esteem it a good omen when a 
stork builds its coarse nest of sticks on their house-top, 
Innumerable stories are current among different nations 
ascribing to the stork, gratitude, chastity, parental affec- 
tion, conjugal fidelity and filial piety. In the Tyrol, for 
example, a male stork refused to migrate, and passed 
several winters with his mate, which, being wounded, could 
not fly. 

49. What was the sacred bird of the Egyp- 
tians ? 

Ans. — The Ibis, probably because it rid them of ser- 
pents, the skins and scales of which have been found in 
the Ibis mummies. Some think, however, that the reason 
of this worship was merely because the coming of the bird 
was simultaneous with the annual overflow of the Nile, 
and hence symbolical of fertility. Whoever killed an Ibis 
was mobbed, while the dead bird was embalmed. The 
Ibis multiplied in consequence to such an extent as to im- 
pede travel in the streets. The affection of the bird for 
Egypt was so great that, according to Acteon, when taken 
away it died of home-sickness. But now, being killed and 
eaten by the modern inhabitants, who have abandoned 
the faith of their fathers, it has almost deserted the country. 
—{Figuier.) 

50. From what is the name Alectorides de- 
rived ? 

Ans. — From the Greek alector, a cock, and eidos, form, 
alluding to a fancied resemblance. The Rails or Rallidae 
have a compressed body, rather short bill, very short con- 
cave wings, a turned up tail, large legs, and exceedingly 
long toes, which enable them to run over soft ground, and 



244 Dime Question Books. 

even on the surface of broad floating leaves like those of 
water-lilies and other aquatic plants. Rails are mostly of 
small size, varying from five or six inches to eight inches 
in length. The Clapper Rail or Marsh Hen, however, is 
sixteen inches long. 

51. How are Flamingoes distinguished ? 

Ans. — By their very long neck and long legs, and their 
large bill which is abruptly bent downward in the middle. 
Its plumage is a deep scarlet on the back, and roseate on 
the wings. Its tongue is very fleshy, and, during the days 
of Rome's extravagance, her gluttons were wont to parade 
a dish composed of flamingoes' tongues. 

52. How are "foot-covered" birds recog- 
nized ? 

Ans.~ By the totipalmate foot, that is furnished with 
three full webs. In all these, the hind toe is low down and 
more or less turned to one side, and is connected with the 
inner toe by a complete web. The birds of this order 
(steganopodes) are hatched in a feeble condition, and require 
feeding by the parents. 

Note.— The Brown Pelican flies ten to twenty feet above the 
surface, watching the shoals of fish beneath, till a chance offers, 
when it falls flatwise, often with a foi*ce that would be fatal to 
itself if it were not for a thick layer of air-cells just beneath the 
skin, which breaks the force of the blow. Scooping up one or 
more withitspouch.it rises, repeating the operation as often as 
the capacity of its pocket will permit. 

53. Name the " long-winged " birds. 

Ans.— Gulls, Petrels, Terns, Albatrosses, SkusB, etc 
The Terns have a long, slender and acute bill, with man 



Zoology. 245 

dibles of nearly equal length, the wings extremely long 
and pointed, the tail generally forked and the feet very 
small. They are much more beautiful in their form and 
more graceful in their movements than the Gulls, and are 
often called Sea Swallows. In the Scissors -bill the lower 
mandible, with the shape and sharpness of a knife-blade, 
shuts into the grooved edge of the short upper one like a 
razor into its handle. 

54. Which is the best " swimmer " anions 
birds? S 

Ans.— The Loon. It gleans its scanty pittance from the 
whirling surges of the sea, and as it makes its appearance 
in great numbers just before a storm, seeking food and 
shelter in the wake of the vessel, it has been charged with 
creating the tempest. Its flesh contains much oil, and the 
natives of the Faroe islands are said to make a lamp by 
drawing a wick through the body of a very fat one, and 
lighting the end which projects from the beak. 

55. What animal is half bird and half fish ? 

Ans.— The Penguin. They cannot fly, as their wings 
are hardly more than mere flippers or paddles, covered 
with scale like feathers, and their bones are solid and 
heavy. They are confined to the cold regions of the South- 
ern hemisphere— in Patagonia, where they are said to col- 
lect in such numbers at breeding places as to cover thirty 
or forty acres -and rarely go on shore except to lay their 
eggs. Some species, however, carry them about in a sort 
of pouch on the aid -men. 

Query.— Where are fossil remains of birds to be found? What 
forms the " wish-bone " of birds? What was the Dodo? Describe 
the Goosander. How long do swans live? What bird pursues its 



246 Dime Question Books. 

prey under water? What are Mergansers? What bird fa called 
by sailors, Mother Carey's Chicken? Which is the largest sea- 
bird? Which one of the Pygopodes has become extinct? 

Note.— The Kiwi Kiwi (Apteryx), or the bird without wings, 
is found only in New Zealand. It is extremely fleet of foot, and 
hard to capture. As it lives in the swamps, and hides in the day- 
time, only coming forth at night, the natives have almost given up 
the effort to obtain it, and it is only for their chiefs that they ever 
pursue them. The chiefs aione are permitted to wear cloaks 
made of its skin, and the owner of a Kiwi cloak is a very proud 
man. 



56. Name the orders of Reptilia. 

Ans. — Testudinata, (Tortoise); Loricata, (Alligator); 
Lacertilia, (Lizard); Ophidia, (Snake). The blood of Rep- 
tiles is never completely oxygenated; to a certain extent it 
is always impure, and hence their temperature is corre- 
spondingly low, and their habits are generally sluggish. 
In warm countries, however, some kinds — as Lizards — are 
very active. They are generally carnivorous, and swallow 
their prey whole. 

57. Describe the Eiver Tortoise. 

Ans.— It is a common North American species whose 
sharp edged jaws are strong enough to bite asunder a 
stick half an inch in diameter. It is fond of water-fowl, 
swimming beneath the surface and quietly dragging them 
under. About June 10th, in the temperate climates, it 
lays thirty to fifty spherical eggs. For their reception, a 
hole is scooped in the sand by the hind feet, and then 
smoothed over and left. This entire work is none within 
fifteen or twenty minutes. The eggs are hatched by the 
heat of the sur: in about three mouths, when the young im* 
mediately take to the water. 



2oglogv. 247 

58. What is said of Sea Turtles 1 

Axs.-In the Antilles and other breed ing-places the 
turtle is exceedingly valuable. Its eggs are a delicacy; its 
flesh is used for food: its fat for oil and butter; its cara- 
pace for drinking troughs, bathing tubs, canoes, roofs to 
the native huts, and the tortoise shell is an article of com- 



merce. 



or uSSZ^&XT*? sea - totles <"»»«< «"» Sphargidid* 
H,at niffl ,f T ' whose general form ls something like 
that ; ol a flattened pyramid, and whose body is covered with a 
thick conaceous skin instead of a hard shell. TheTlZ. 
Atlantic aud Mediterranean, and are the largest of an telle, 
attaining a weight of twelve hundred to two thousand pounds ' 

59. What do the Saurians include ? 

ANs.-The huge fossil Dinosaurs, the Crocodiles, the 
Lizards the fossil Ichthyosauri, etc., the Pterodactyls etc 
Many o the bird-like tracks of the Connecticut van y are 
r garded as those of huge dinosaurs. They are also found 

set* toTn P it ,°? the n ° rthera P ° rtion <**«•<*»• 
setts to Long Island Sound. The Dinosaurs are an order 

of repines wh.ch we know only by their fossil remains. 

60. Explain the difference between the Croc- 
odile and the Alligator. 

.h» A fn~T he Croeofli!e3 be! <™g «o the Nile and Ganges- 
the ^Alligators o the Mississippi and waters of Florida 

If en eTor r ^ ^ <* **** ** «* ^ 
mteen feet or more. By a peculiar arrangement the 

*Z°t ™nt tT'- n " 7 C ' 0Se the mtranCe to "*• 
as to prevent the ingress of water, and thus, by brin- \ B g 

from time to time the eztermity of its snout above h! 
surface , can with impunity maintain its grip upon be 
prey and keep it under water. P 



g48 Dime Question Book. 

Note.— Crocodiles have the long '-canine" teeth so arranged 
as to fit into holes in the upper jaw, the hind feet webbed nearly 
to the toes, and a ridge of projecting scales down the outer border 
of their hind legs. Alligators have the "canine " teeih arranged 
to fit into a pit in the upper jaw, and they have no ridge of pro- 
jecting scales on the outer border of their hind legs, and their hind 
feet are not so completely webbed as those of the Crocodiles. 

61. Can the Chameleon change its color? 

Ans — Many of the stories current about the chame- 
leon's change of color are doubtless fabulous; yet it can 
become at pleasure yellow, green, or black. "In the skin 
there is a network of minute ducts, connecting with pig- 
ment-vesicles on the under surface, which contain the 
coloring liquid. The tint of the animal depends on the 
amount of this liquid injected into the ducts." — (Bert.) 
The process seems somewhat analogous to that of blushing 
in the human species. 

Note.— Eeptiles continue to live and exhibit movements long 
after losing the brain, and even after the head is cut off. The 
muscles preserve their irritability for a considerable time after 
being severed from the body; and even the heart pulsates for 
hours after it is removed, nor does its loss prevent the animal 
from moving about. The eyes of reptiles resemble those of birds. 
Some have three eyelids ; others, as serpents, have none, and hence 
their fixed and staring look. 

62. What are Glass-snakes ? 

Ans. — Lacertilians which are snake-like in appearance, 
having no external locomotive members. When fright- 
ened, it contracts its muscles so violently that its tail will 
break off as if it were brittle. 

63. Have serpents teeth ? 

Ans. — Yes, and they are pointed, smooth, and arched 
towards the throat. Most of the venomous ones have, 






Zoology. 249 

however, in place of teeth in the upper jaw, two fangs, 
through which the poison is ejected to the bottom of the 
wound. The bones of the jaws and mouth are connected 
by extensible ligaments only, an arrangement by which the 
mouth may be distended so as to receive an object of much 
greater diameter than the serpent itself. Snakes shed their 
epidermis once, and, in many cases, three or four times a 
year. It parts around the mouth, and the reptile slides out 
of it by crawling through a crevice to hold it, reversing 
the cuticle. The slough is perfect, even to the epidermis 
of the eyes. 

64, How do snakes bite ! 

Ans. — Rattlesnakes and their allies, Copperheads, Moc- 
casins, etc., are armed with sharp-pointed, movable poi- 
son fangs. These fangs are concealed in a fold of the gum, 
or raised, at the will of the animal. They connect with a 
gland situated near the eye, which furnishes the fluid poi- 
son. "When the snake bites, the fangs are raised, and the 
pressure of the temporal muscles upon the gland forces 
the poison along the fang into the wound. 

65. What are " rattles " 1 

Ans.— Rattlesnakes have on the end of the tail a series 
of horny enlargements, loosely attached to each other, 
which, when shaken, make a rattling noise. Each slough 
leaves a new button, while the end ones are drooping off 
from wear ; hence the number is no indication of age. 

Query.— What is the difference between a tortoise and a tur- 
tle? Where is the Bearded Tortoise found? What are Theco- 
donts? Have reptiles ears? What are the largest serpents 
known? What is the only known remedy for a snake bite? Ans. 
Intoxication superinduced by some form of alcoholic drink. What 
are Hydrophidos? 



£50 Dime Question Books. 

Note.— In India and Africa there are poisonous snakes known 
as Vipers, which can raise up and draw forward the anterior ribs 
so as to dilate the forward part of the body into a more or less 
broad disk. The Spectacled Viper or Cobra of India is one of 
these vipers which has a black line resembling in outline a pair of 
spectacles traced on the wid< ned portion of its disk. This is the 
snake whose fangs the jugglers of India extract, 'and then train it 
to dance. The Asp of Egypt is a viper not less noted. The ancient 
Egyptians made it the emblem of the protecting divinity of the 
world, and sculptured it on the sides of a globe upon the gates ol 
their temples. By pressing this snake on the nape, the jugglers of 
Egypt threw it into a stiffened, immovable condition, which they 
called turning it into a rod. It is probably the Asp of Egypt, and 

the Asp of Cleopatra. 

t 

66. Name the orders of Batrachians (Am- 
phibia.) 

Ans.— First, the Anoura, tailless animals represented 
by Frogs, which lay their eggs in large masses in ponds; 
Toads, which lay them in long strings, also in ponds, 
skin more or less warty; Tree Toads, which have the ends 
of the toes in disks, which help them in climbing, and 
often lay their eggs on trees over water. To the second 
order Urodela, belong the Salamander and Newt. The 
first-named exudes a milky, glutinous kind of perspira- 
tion. By its evaporation this will for a time protect the 
body from heat, and hence the popular superstition that 
the animal is fire proof. Of the third order Amphipneusta 
are the Sire us, Proteus, and Axototl. 

67. "What rank lowest among vertebrates? 

Ans. —Fishes (pisces), "They fall far behind the rest in 
strength, intelligence and sensibility. The eyes, though 
large, are almost immovable, bathed by no tears, and pro- 
tected by no lids. Dwelling in the realm of sileoce, ears 
are little needed, and such as they have are without exter- 



Zoology. 25i 

nal parts, the sound being obliged to pass through the 
cranium. Taste and smell are blunted and touch is nearly 
confined to the lips. Destitute of the means of social in- 
tercourse (being almost mute), their chief enjoyment is to 
eat, and to be eaten is the end of their existence. But the 
class jields to no other in the number and variety of its 
forms. It includes nearly one -half of all the vertebrate 
species." 

68. Into how many orders are fishes divided? 

Ans. — Six. The Dipnoi represented by one single fam- 
ily, the singular mud-fish of tropical rivers. The Elasmo- 
branchii containing the Rays, Saw-fish, Sharks. The 
Ganoidei which includes the Sturgeon and Garpike. The 
Teleostei bony fishes comprising eighteen divisions. The 
Marsipobranchii (pouch gilled); and the Pharyngobranchii 
(gullet-gilled). 

Note.— Some kinds of spine-finned fishes are beautiful in 
form; others, as for example, the Toad-fishes and Fishing- frogs, 
or Lophida3, of the ocean, are exceedingly ugly. The famous 
Archers (chaetodovis) of the East Indies are spine-finned fishes 
which have the remarkable habit of spirting drops of waser so as 
to hit and bring down insects which they see above them. 

69. Describe the Articulates. 

Ans. — These jointed beings constitute more than four- 
fifths of the Animal Kingdom. They are divided trans 
versely into rings or joints more or less movable upon one 
another, and have no internal skeleton. The three classes 
are the Insecta- air-breathing articulates, with the body 
generally more or less divided into three parts, head, 
thorax and abdomen, legs jointed. Crustacea— gill-breath- 
ing articulates, with head and thorax united into one part, 
distinct from abdomen, covered with a hard crust, legs 



252 Dime Question Books. 

jointed. Vermes— gill-breathing articulates, with no dis- 
tinction of head, thorax or abdomen; legs not jointed. The 
class Insecta is divided into the sub classes of Insecta 
proper (flies, etc.,) Myriayoda (centipedes, etc.*) and Arach- 
nida (spiders, etc.,) each containing several orders. 

TO. What is Metamorphosis ? 

Ans. — The young insect passes through a series of 
changes before reaching the form of the adult. Thus, a 
moth, on emerging from the egg, appears as a larva; if 
with legs, a caterpillar; if "without, a grub or maggot. Its 
whole business now is to eat, and hence in this stage it is 
most injurious to vegetation. After* repeated molts, to al- 
low for the enlargement of its body, it usually roils itself 
into a cocoon and becomes a pupa, during which stage it 
remains quiet. At length, the time varying with different 
species, it bursts forth an imago. It is now furnished with 
wings, and the two sexes pairing, eggs for the next genera- 
tion are laid, and the parents die. 

71. What are the sorts of Apidse (Honey- 
bees)} 

Ans.— Females or queens, males or drones, and imper- 
fectly developed females or workers. In each swarm is 
one queen, which lays the eggs in three broods: the first 
producing workers; the second, drones; and the third, 
queens. The drones are the idlers, and are killed by the 
workers after the pairing season. 

72. What are Ichneumons ? 

Ans. — Animals whose mission is to prevent the increase 
of other insects. They deposit their eggs in the eggs, 
larvse, and pupae of other insects; and upon these the 
ichneumon larva feeds when hatched. 



Zoology. 253 

Note.— One of the most noted species of the Lepidoptera ig 
the Death's-head Moth, so called because on the back of its thorax 
there is a rough figure of a human skull, and it emits a plain- 
tive squeal when disturbed. 

T3. "What insect is provided with a piercer ? 

Ans.— The female Cicadas (Harvest-fly or Locust) with 
which they perforate the limbs of trees, in which they lay 
their eggs. This piercer consists of three pieces ; two outer 
ones, which are grooved on the inside, and toothed on the 
outside like a saw, and a central piece, which is a sort of 
spear-pointed borer, which moves freely between the other 
two. The Greeks, we are told, often kept these insects in 
cages that they might enjoy their " music 1" And the 
Greeks also used them as food, eating both the pup® and 
the perfect cicadas. 

74. What are wingless Dipters ? 

Ans.— Fleas which are noted for their strength and doci- 
lity. The "learned fleas," exhibited in Paris, a few years 
ago, went through military evolutions, standing on their 
hind legs and shouldering tiny spears: and two of them 
drew a companion in a little wagon, a fourth sitting on the 
coachman's box and wielding the whip. The spectators 
viewed this wonderful exhibition through magnifying 
glasses. 

NOTE.-The Earwig (Ear- wing) sits upon its eggs till they are 
hatched, and then broods its young as a hen does its chickens. 

75. Describe the Hair-snake. 

Ans.— It is so called from the erroneous notion that it 
originates from horse hairs soaked in water. Probably, by 
the eggs being eaten, the larvse obtain access to the bodies 
of grasshoppers, etc., and, ceiling up within the cavity, 



254 Dime Question Books. 

reach, a length often ten -fold that of their host. At matur- 
ity they desert the insects at whose expense they have 
been nourished, and seek the water to lay their eggs and 
die. 

76. What are Mollusks ? 

Ans. — Those animals which have a soft body, envel- 
oped by a muscular skin called a mantle, and in most cases 
protected by a shell; they are not jointed nor radiated in 
their internal structure. The shells are the parts of these 
animals which we oftenest see; for when the animal is 
dead the soft parts soon disappear, and only the shell 
remains. Most kinds of mollusks increase by means of 
eggs: some kinds are viviparous, and some kinds of tuni- 
cate mollusks increase by budding. Their blood is white 
or colorless. 

77. What are the characteristics of the Ceph- 
alopoda ? 

Ans. — They have muscular tentacles or arms around 
the mouth; beaked, horny jaws; two large eyes; arms 
covered with sucking disks; and a bag of ink, with which 
most species blacken the water to hide from pursuit. To 
this class belong the "sailors"; the cuttle-fish, which has 
a spongy, calcareous- mass within its body, known as cut- 
tle-fish bone, and used for canary birds; the beautiful nau- 
tilus; and the famous devil-fish. 

78. What is said of the Muricidss (rock-shells)? 

Ans. — The Murex has the aperture of its shell pro- 
longed into a canal. The Shetlanders use this shell for a 
lamp, inserting the wick in the canal, and filling the body 
of the shell with oil. From these mollusks the ancients 



ZoOLOG?-. 255 

obtained the costly Syrian dye, the "purple " of Scripture. 

79. Why do shells give a murmuring noise 

when held to the ear ? 

Ans.— The usual explanation of the " roar of the sea " 
in shells is that the form of the shell and its polished sur- 
face collect and reflect sounds in the air, otherwise imper- 
ceptible. Another theory refers the murmur to the circu- 
lation of the blood through the capillaries of the fingers 
holding the shell by which vibrations are magnified. A 
feeble murmur can be heard, however, when the shell 
rests on a table, and it is probable that both causes are 
concerned in the phenomenon. 

80. What is the meaning of Echinoderms ? 

Ans. — Spiny-skinned. They are radiate animals which 
have a tough skin containing particles of carbonate of 
lime, or a shell composed of calcareous pieces, which are 
movable, or fixed together, and covered with tubercles or 
spines. This sub-kingdoin is divided into the four classes 
of Holothurioidea {sea-cucumbers) Echinoidea {sea -urchins), 
Asteroidea {star-flslies) and Crinoidea {feather -stars). 

81. What are the Coelenterates ? 

Ans.— Radiates having a distinct body-cavity, whose 
walls consist of an outer layer {ectoderm) and an inner 
layer {endoderm). They are all aquatic, and multiply alike 
by budding, by eggs and by fission. They are usually 
armed with peculiar stinging filaments. There are the 
four classes of Cteuophora {comb bearers); Anthoza {flower- 
like animals); Hydroza {water-dragon animals)— such as 
Jelly fishes and the Portuguese Man of -War; and Spongida 
{sponges). 



256 Dim B Question Books* 

Note.— The Medusae, Nettles, or Jelly-fish, are the terror of 
bathers, as the pain inflicted by the lash of their envenomed fila- 
ments is exceedingly deranging to the whole nervous system, 
though at first seeming to be no more than the tingling sensation 
ot the common stinging nettle. 

82. Describe the Protozoans. 

Ans, — They are small, living mostly in the water, and 
many are microscopic. They are composed of a mucous, 
albuminous substance called 'protoplasm. They have no 
distinct organs of circulation or digestion, possess neither 
nerves nor muscles, although they take food, grow and 
multiply, and many are exceedingly active. Innumerable 
invertebrates feed upon them. 

83. Name the classes. 

Ans. — The Infusoria, (including the vorticels and nocii- 
lueae); the Rhizopoda (rootfooted), and the Gregarinida 
(Jlocks), which are parasitic forms found particularly in 
Cockroaches and Earthworms. BathyUus, of the Monera, 
a mass of albuminous jelly, neither distinctively animal or 
plant, is considered the simplest structure known to maru 



At Your Leisure, 

What monkey furnishes us with an example of a syn- 
thetic or comprehensive type? Give examples of the Pho- 
cidae and Ursidse. What are Bovidse? What are the 
differences between Carnivorous and Herbivorous animals? 
Where is the Yak, or grunting ox, to be found? Upon 
what do deer live? What comparison can be drawn 
between the Peccary and Wild Boar? What animal is 
supposed to be the "cony'* of Scripture? Explain the 



Zoology. 257 

difference between the Asiatic and African elephants. 
What is the "Puffing Pig"? What is a Vampire? Is 
there really a flying squirrel ? Does the porcupine throw 
his quills? In what country are singing mice to he 
obtained? What is the name of the female Fox? Ans, 
Vixen. Give comparative description of a cat and a 
goose, stating likenesses and differences. Why were the 
Armadillos so called ? Marsupium means what? What 
are the Didelphididee? What are granulations in birds? 
scutella? What temperature is needed in hatching eggs? 
Mention the habits of the Cow-bird, Baltimore Oriole, and 
Bobolink. What bird has a gape with bristles ? What 
bird is the chosen symbol of our country? For what is 
the Man of- War Bird remarkable? What birds are used 
by the Chinese for fishing? Give examples of digitigrade 
and plantigrade animals. To what general class does the 
whale belong? What are the "butchers" of the sea? 
Which fish gives a violent electric shock? What are the 
"stone-suckers"? Of what country is the Gold-fish a 
native? What fish has four beards hanging from 
the mouth? What is the technical name of the " sleeper- 
out"? What becomes of a hive without a queen? Give 
some account of the bee communities. What is Entomol- 
ogy? How many facets has the common house-fly? Men- 
tion and describe some insects which are destructive to 
crops. How are the male Humble-bees distinguished? 
Ans. By their white faces. What animal lays 80,000 eggs 
in a day? How do the Seventeen-year locusts derive their 
name? What insect produces caterpillars? What are 
Wiggle-tails? How are the notes of the Katydid produced? 
What is the antidote for a serpent's bite? Name some of 
the Crustaceans. What are Vermes? What does the 
Trichina inhabit? In what mollusks are the sexes united? 
What is a "siphuncle"? Describe the Hammer Oyster. 
Art there red canary birds? What is your idea of the rel- 



2-58 Dime Question Books. 

ative importance of the subject of zoology, and of the 
place it should occupy in the school course? Name the 
elasses of the Hymenoptera order. What is the meaning 
of Aphidae? (While reptiles can live in air too impure for 
mammals, birds will die in an atmosphere which to mam- 
mals is quite harmless.) What animal can leap two hun- 
dred times its own height? Ans. A flea. 




CHEMISTRY 



CHEMISTRY. 



1. Chemistry is what? 

Ans. — Chemistry is that branch of science which treats 
of the composition of bodies, or of the changes which take 
place in matter whereby it loses its identity. Organic 
chemistry deals with those substances which have been 
produced by life; as flesh and wood. Inorganic chemistry 
is confined to those which have not been formed by life; as 
glass and metals. 

Note.— Of the sixty-four elements now known, fifty-one are to 
be considered as metals and the remaining thirteen non-metals. 
Vide Philosophy. 

2. What causes favor chemical action ? 

Am — Heat and light; and solution aids in chemical 
change, as it destroys cohesion and leaves the atoms free 
to unite. 

3. What is Synthesis ? 

Ans. — The puttiug of substances together to form chem- 
ical compounds; it may occur with different degrees of 
energy. It takes place: 1. In constant proportions be- 
tween the same elements. 2. In multiple proportions be- 
tween the same elements. 3. In constant or multiple pro- 
portions for all elements. 



264 Dime Question Book. 

.Note.— The compounds formed are binary, ternary or double. 
jfliey may be formed : 1. By the simple bringing together of sub- 
stances under conditions favorable to chemical action. 2. By the 
substitution of one substance for another in a given compound 
[substitution). 8. By interchanging of substances in two given 
compounds (metathesis or double substitution). 

4. "What is Analysis ? 

Ans. — The separation of compounds into their constitu- 
ent parts; it may be Qualitative, showing only the ele- 
ments contained, or Quantitative, showing the amounts of 
each element contained. 

5. How is the nomenclature of chemistry de- 
rived ? 

• Ans. — Many of the long known substances retain their 
old names, as kon, gold, silver, lead, sulphur, etc., but in 
symbolizing, the initials of the Latin names are used, as Fe, 
ferrum; Au, aurum; Ag, argentum, etc. The more recent- 
ly discovered metals have generally received names ending 
In um and so called from some peculiar property, or from 
'.he name of the compound substance from which they 
were separated; as sodium, potassium, etc. Names of 
compound substances are formed by combining according 
to certain rules the names of the simple elements compos- 
ing them; as hydrogen sulphide. Certain non-metallic ele- 
ments having some resemblance have received names with 
Similar terminations, as bromine (named from its bad odor), 
shlorine (named from its green color), iodine (named from 
ts beautiful violet colored vapor), etc. 

6. Describe the Symbols. 

Ans. — For convenience, chemists use symbols to repre- 
sent the simple elements. This symbolism is very simple, 



Chemistky. 265 

consisting of the initial letter or letters of the name of th^ 
element. Where more than one element begins with th& 
same letter or letters, the second or third letter is also used. 
Compounds are indicated by writing the symbols of their 
elements in close connection. C is the symbol for carbon, 
but as chlorine begins with the same letter CI is used for 
that element. Cu for copper from the Latin name cuprum, 
and H 2 is the symbol for the element, water. When 
a symbol stands without any figures attached, as H, it 
means an atom of that element. When a small figure 
is written below, it means that a corresponding num- 
ber of atoms is taken. H 2 means two atoms ©f hydrogen. 
H 2 means two atoms of hydrogen and one of ©xygen. 

7. What is an Oxide ? 

Ans.— One atom of O in a molecule forms the monoxide 
or protoxide, two the dioxide or binoxide, three of O and 
two of the other element the sesquioxide (meaning \\) t and 
the highest number, the peroxide. 

8. Define Acids, Bases, and Salts. 

Ans.— There are two large classes of oxides chemically 
opposed to each other, termed acids and bases; their com- 
pounds are called salts. The acids are generally sour and 
turn vegetable colors— such as the infusion of blue litmus, 
or of purple cabbage— to a bright red. They are named 
from the elements with which O combines. The termina- 
tion ic is given to the positive element when it has the 
greater proportion, and ous when it has the lesser propor- 
tion as sulphuric, the stronger, and sulphurous, the weaker. 
When the proportion is still less than ous it takes the pre- 
fix hypo as hypochlorous acid ; when greater than ic it takes 
the prefix per, as perchloric oxide. The bases are com- 



266 Dime Question Books. 

monly oxides of the metals. Their termination, as in the 
acids, indicates the amount of oxygen. In naming a salt, 
the termination of the acid is changed — an ic acid forming 
an ate compound, and an ous acid an tie compound Thus 
the salts of nitric acid are called nitrates, and of nitrous 
acid, nitrites. 

Note.— The compounds resulting from oxygen uniting with 
most metals are called oxides. Really they are ashes, but are com- 
monly known as rust. Gold, silver, platinum, and mercury are 
called noble metals, because they do not easily rust, but retain 
their brightness. Hot metals rust more easily than cold. 

Query.— "What are atoms and molecules? What is meant by 
atomic weight ? What are proximate and ultimate elements ? 
Substances may be what ? How may decomposition be produced? 
What is meant by Electrolysis ? (Vide No. 1 Dime Series). What 
does the study of chemistry comprise? Express a compound mole- 
cule. 

9. What is a formula ? 

Ans.— An algebraic statement of the symbols and rela- 
tions of several compounds. The sign -f- indicates a feeble 
attraction or a mere mixture. The sign = indicates con- 
version into. The comma or the period denotes a combi- 
nation. The brackets and co- efficients are used as in alge- 
bra. 

Note.— An analysis of water shows it to be composed of 88.89 
parts of oxygen and 11.11 parts of hydrogen by weight, which is as 
8 to 1. By volume it is composed of two parts hydrogen to one part 
oxygen. We then say that two atoms of hydrogen are used and 
that the atomic weight of oxygen is 16 and the formula, H s O ex- 
presses the proportions of both weight and measure. The mole- 
cular weight of water is 

2+16=18; 
hence the proportion of H is 2-18 or 1-9, and of 0, 16-18 or 8-9. Ir 
10 lbs. of H 8 0, there are therefore 

10X8-9=8 8-9 lbs. of O, and 10x1-9 or 1 1-9 lbs. of H. 
How else may this be solved ? Ans. By proportion. 



Chemistry. 26 T 

10. What is the meaniDg of Oxygen ? 

Ans. — Acid-former, and was given because it was sup- 
posed to be the essential principle of all acids; but hydro- 
gen has since been found to be the true acid maker. Its 
symbol is O; atomic weight, 16; specific gravity, 1.1. 

Note.— To make oxygen gas, take half an ounce of powdered 
chlorate of potash (KC10 3 ), and mix it with enough black oxide 
of manganese (MnOg) to make it black. Then place the powder 
in a flask furnished with a perforated cork and long bent tube^ 
placing the flask on a ring of the retort stand so that you can gen- 
tly heat the mixture, and then collect the gas as it comes over in 
bottles placed in a pneumatic tub. 

11. What else is said of oxygen ? 

Ans.— It is a colorless, invisible, tasteless gas. It exists 
in the free state in the air, mixed with about four times its- 
bulk of nitrogen gas. It also comprises by weight f of 
the water, f of all animal bodies, and more than ^ of the 
crust of the earth. It combines with all the elements (with 
one exception) to form oxides. When it combines with 
other elements heat is evolved, and often light, and the sub- 
stance is said to bum. It is necessary for the life of ani- 
mals; they breathe it, and use it to oxidize and purify tha 
blood and to keep up the animal heat. 

12. What is ozone ? 

Ans.-— An allotropic form of 0, i. e., a form in which 
the element itself is so changed as to have new properties. 
It is always perceived during the working of an electric 
machine, and is then called "the electric smell." It has 
also been detected near objects just struck by lightning. 
Electricity is supposed to have something to do with the 
formation of the ozone in the atmosphere. 



268 Dime Question Books. 

13. What are its properties? 

Ans. — It is more corrosive than oxygen, bleaches pow- 
erfully, and is a rapid disenfectant. A piece of tainted 
meat plunged into a jar of it is instantly deodorized, and it 
is probable that, even in minute quantities, this gas exer- 
cises a powerful influence in purifying the atmosphere. 

14:. Define Atomicity. 

Ans. — It is a term used to denote the combining power, 
or the proportion in which the atoms of elements unite with 
atoms of hydrogen. The elements are arranged in seven 
groups and receive the names of monads, dyads, triads, 
tetrads, pentads, hexads and heptads, according as they 
unite with 1, 2, 8, 4, 5, 6 or 7 atoms of hydrogen. The 
elements which have an even atomicity are called artiads, 
those having an odd atomicity are called perissads. 

15. Describe Hydrogen. 

Ans. — Like Oxygen it is a colorless, invisible, tasteless 
gas. It does not exist in the free state in the air but com- 
bines with oxygen to form water. Hydrogen also com- 
bines with many other elements: with carbon it forms 
marsh gas (or fire-damp), a substance found in coal gas; it 
is found in all acids, and is the lightest substance of which 
we know, being 14| times lighter than air, and it has, 
therefore, been used for filling balloons. 

Query.— What is the meaning of hydrogen ? Define chemica 
affinity. When was the termination uret used instead of ide, and 
what did it mean? Name an acid that is not sour. What are the 
alkalies ? What is the "water-type"? What is an anhydride ? 
What is antozone? Define the terms equivalence and quantivalence, 

16. How can we get hydrogen from water ? 
Ans. — In several ways. Throw a small pellet of potas- 



Chemistry. 26& 

sium, as large as half a pea, upon the surface of water con- 
tained in a basin. The metal, being lighter than wateiy 
swims on the surface, but the moment it touches the water 
a flame arises around the metal. This flame is caused by 
the hydrogen of the water, which is set free and takes fire 
and burns. The oxygen unites chemically with the 
metal potassium to form the alkali potash. 

ExpeHment— Mix hydrogen and chlorine gases in the dark and 
as soon as the bottle containing them is taken into the sunlight, 
an explosion follows, from the combination of the two gases; anew 
substance, hydrochloric acid gas is formed. 

IT. Why is Nitrogen so called ? 

Am— Because it exists in nitre. Like and H it is 
transparent, colorless, and odorless. It exists in the free 
state in the air. We can separate the oxygen in the air from 
the nitrogen by burning a piece of phosphorus. N is found 
in many compounds, in nitric acid and nitre or saltpetre, 
and in ammonia or spirits of hartshorn. It is also found 
combined in the flesh of animals. N does not unite readily 
with bodies, and is a very inert substance; it does not burn 
itself, nor support combustion nor animal life. It is, how- 
ever, not poisonous, and animals die when placed in it 
simply from want of oxygen, that is, they are suffocated. 

18. What is meant by the Nascent State ? '" 
Ans,— At the time when heat, electricity or any other 
force has just separated the atoms of which a body is com- 
posed, those atoms are said to be in the "nascent state 
and possess unusual attractive power. Many gases, which 
do not ordinarily show any affinity for each other, will 
unite if they are brought near together at the moment they 
are produced. Thus N and H at the very instant of their 
separation will combine and form H„K 



270 Dime Question Books. 

Experiment.— Put half an ounce of powdered nitre into a retort 
and pour upon it half an ounce of sulphuric acid. Then put a lamp 
under the retort, and a flask, kept cool in a hasin of water, to catch 
the acid which comes over. Soon a liquid will collect in the flask. 
This is nitric acid. 

19. What is Carbon ? 

Ans. — A solid element and one of the most abundant 
substances in nature, forming nearly one-half of the entire 
vegetable kingdom. It exists in three distinct forms as dia- 
mond, graphite, and amorphous carbon. This last term in- 
cludes charcoal, coke, soot, bone black, etc. Proof is given 
that these three forms contain carbon and nothing else, by 
taking the same weight of each and by burning them sepa- 
rately, when we obtain exactly the same weight of carbonic 
acid. 

Note.— The diamond is pure carbon crystallized, but it has 
never been made by any chemical process. Minute diamonds, it is 
said, have been separated from carbon compounds by long-contin- 
ued voltaic action, but they were invisible except with a micro- 
scope. The value of the diamond varies with the market; the gen- 
eral rule is as follows : a gem ready for setting, of one carat weight, 
is worth $150 to $180; beyond this size, the estimated value increases 
according to the square of the weight, but in case of large stones 
is generally much less than that amount, although rare beauty or 
size may greatly enhance the price. The Kohinoor ("mountain of 
light", now among the crown jewels of England) , weighs 103 carats, 
yet is valued at 110,000,000. Owing to the discovery of many large 
diamonds hi South Africa, the value of such stones has much de- 
creased of late. The smaller ones, however, are becoming more 
expensive on account of the greater demand for them. The South 
African diamonds are seldom colorless, having generally a yellow- 
ish tint. Paste diamonds are now made in Paris, which are so 
perfect an imitation that only experts can distinguish them from 
the real gems. 

20. How is charcoal made % 

Ans. — By burning piles of wood, so covered over with 



Chemistry. 271 

turf as to prevent free acess of air. The volatile gases, 
water, etc., are driven off, and the C left behind. This 
forms about £ of the bulk of the wood and £ its weight. 

21. Why does wetting half-burned coal in- 
crease its combustion ? 

Ans.— Coal, as well as wood, consists of C, H, and 0; 
but while in wood the proportion of H and to C is about 
fifty per cent., in the different kinds of coal the proportion 
of the gases to the carbon varies from only five per cent, in 
anthracite to eighteen per cent, in bituminous coal. When 
coal is burnt, not only does the oxygen of the air unite with 
its carbon to form carbonic acid gas (C0 8 ), but the heat of 
the kindling develops into gas the oxygen in Che coal itself, 
which, being in the nascent state, lias special activity in 
uniting with the carbon and greatly assists the combustion. 
Half-burned coal does not take fire readily, because the 
gases within it have been expelled by the previous burning. 
Now water ordinarily puts out fire by cooling it below the 
point of ignition, but when coal is merely dampened with 
it, the heat of the burning kindling is sufficient to convert 
the film of water not merely into cooling vapor but into its 
constituent gases H and O. The O thus developed, being 
m the nascent state unites actively with the C, thus taking 
the place of the oxygen in the coal which was expelled by 
the previous burning. 

Quer^When are the molecules of a body said to be amor- 
phous? What is the meaning of dimorphous and isomorphous ? 
How much S is there in 4 lbs. of H 2 S0 4 (sulphuric acid) ? Describe 
the Philosopher's Lamp. Has water an atmosphere ? What are 
the uses of water ? From what is the term carat derived ? De- 
scribe the process of making a lead pencil. What is graphite ? 

22. What is Peat? 



272 Dime Question Books. 

Am — An accumulation of lialf decomposed vegetable 
matter in swampy places. One tenth of Ireland is covered 
with peat-beds. Produced mainly by a kind of moss it 
undergoes gradual changes, and becomes a brownish black 
substance, loose and friable in its texture, resembling coal, 
but, unlike it, containing 20 to 30 per cent, of O. After 
being cut out in square blocks and dried in the sun, it is 
used as fuel. Muck jte an impure kind of peat, not so 
thoroughly carbonized. 

23. What is Fire ? 

Ans. — It is the heat given off when bodies burn or com- 
bine chemically. Combustion, in general, is the rapid 
union of a substance with O, and is accompanied by heat 
and light. Our fuel and lights, such as wood, coal, oil, 
tallow, etc., consist mainly of C and H, and are, therefore, 
called hydrocarbons. In burning they unite with the of 
the air, forming H 2 and C0 2 . These both pass off, the 
one as a vapor, the other as a gas. So from a burnt candle 
we have remaining carbonic acid gas and water. 

24. How are explosions in coal pits prevented? 

Ans. —By using Davy's Saf ety Lamp. By holding a fine 
wire gauze over the flame of a candle or lamp the flame is 
prevented from passing through because the metallic gauze 
conducts away the heat and thus reduces the temperature 
below the igniting point. Some miners use an ordinary 
oil-lamp, surrounded by a cylinder of fine wire-gauze. 

25. What is spontaneous combustion ? 

Ans. — The result of chemical changes taking place in 
combustible substances, whereby heat enough is generated 
to cause ignition. CaO occasionally absorbs H 8 0, so as to 



Chemistey. 27s 

*et fire to wood in contact with it. The waste cotton used 
n mills for wiping oil from the machinery, when thrown 
into large, heaps, often absorbs O from the air to rapidly 
that it bursts into a blaze. 

26. Describe the atmosphere. 

ANS.-The -air we breathe" consists of N, 0, C0 3 , and 
watery vapor. The first composes f , the second *. thj 
about ^ and the last a variable amount, though ff -and 
form so large a part, that they are considered in ordinary 
calculation to form the whole atmosphere. A very clear 
idea of the proportion of these several constituents may be 
formed by conceiving the air, not as now dense near the 
surface of the earth, and gradually becoming rarefied s we 
ascend to its extreme limit of perhaps 500 miles, but of a 
density throughout equal to that which it now possesses 

S T\ The atm0 * phere Would then be aLut five 
miles high The vapor would form a sheet of H 2 over 
the ground five inches deep, next to this the C0 3 a layer of 

he NoVr f f en ^ ° a ^ ° f ° ne mile > ^ *«« all 
tne jn one of four miles. 

water, first floating on the water'a httle Sn! , m .?„ basil1 of 
Piece of phosphorus (P) S^T* a J£ n^t and filtt^ T* 
phorus with a match. The bright flame o* P goes SS^ElSt 
an burnt. Let the bottle stand until it is cool %£»l ?? , 
or fumes made by the burning P ^Z? e » r 1p? • Sm ° ke 

of air; but while the bottle wL ^f aL afth, h^ * qUaDtity 
contains considerable water. A^V^w^Z*"^^ n ° W 
taper or match plunged into thelas! £%XZ»£J^ 
there is something different from ^Z!ZtZ\ZZ^^ 
OhasunitedwithPformmgthewWte^ 
i^place. The gas remaining is N, which extmguishes tie bur^ 

27. What are the uses of carbonic acid? 



274 Dime Question Books. 

Ans.— -The leaves of flowers drink in C0 8 and retaining 
the C return the O to the air for our use. They exhale O 
as we breathe out C0 2 . We pollute the air while they puri- 
fy it. This interchange of office is so exactly balanced, 
that the proportion of CO s , and of 0, in the open air, never 
varies. 

Query.— Are house -pi ants injurious to health ? What Is hay 
fever? What is meant by solar force? What makes hard water ? 
Showthe truth of the paradox— ''We live only as we die." Howls 
hard ehalk water softened? What is asphyxia ? What is Soot ? 
When was mineral coal formed ? 

28. Describe the watery vapor. 

Ans. — H s is present everywhere ready to supply the 
wants of animals and plants. "Were the air perfectly dry, 
our flesh would become shrivelled like a mummy's, and 
leaves would wither as in an African simoon. All the 
streams that flow to the ocean are fed by the currents that 
move in the air above us. 

29. What is the "Chlorine group"? 

Ans. — Chlorine (CI), Iodine (I), Bromine (Br), and Fluo- 
rine (F). They are called haloids or halogens, because they 
are found in the sea. They are very active, their affinity 
for O being proportioned to their atomic weights, and for 
other elements, inversely so. CI is found in common salt 
(NaCl) and KC1. It is used for bleaching and as a disin- 
fectant, both alone and in compounds. It has a greenish- 
yellow color and a peculiarly disagreeable odor. It pro- 
duces a suffocating cough, which can be relieved by breath- 
ing ammonia or ether. HC1 is a colorless acid, sp. gr. 1.27, 
liquefies at)40 atmospheres. One vol. H s absorbs 400 vols. 
OC1. Used in manufacture of soda, "chloride of lime," 
and in the laboratory. 



Chemistry. 275 

Note.— Br, prepared from "bittern " of salt water and salt 
springs, is a dark red liquid of disagreeable odor. Used in photog- 
rapby, medicine, and the arts. F is found most abundantly in 
fluor spar. It is the only element that will not unite with O. Its 
acid, HF, is a colorless, volatile and corrosive liquid used for etch- 
ing glass. I is made from kelp (the ashes of sea-weed) , and is de- 
posited in crystals on the sides of the bottle In which it is kept. 
Its compounds with the metals, called the iodides, are remarkable 
for their variety and brilliancy of color. 

30. How can we get CI from common salt % 

Ans.— By mixing a little salt with a little powdered 
black manganese oxide, putting the mixture into a flask, 
and pouring upon the mixture some sulphuric acid diluted 
with the same quantity of H 3 0. By adapting a bent tube 
and by slightly heating the flask, a heavy, yellow, very 
strongly smelling gas is given off, and may be collected in 
a dry bottle. 

31. ■ What is Boron ? 

Ans. — An element found in nature in combination with 
O, as boracic acid. Along the sides of the mountains in 
the volcanic districts of Tuscany, series of basins are exca- 
vated and filled with cold water from the neighboring 
springs. The jets of steam charged with boracic acid are 
conducted into these basins. The H 2 -absorbs the acid, 
and becomes itself heated to the boiling-point. It is then 
drawn off into the next lower basin and this process is con- 
tinued until the bottom one is reached, when the solution 
runs into leaden pans heated by the steam from the earth! 
here the H a O is evaporated, and the acid collected. Borax 
(Na 8 0, 2B,0 8 , 10H 2 O) is a salt of this acid. 

32. Of what is Si the symbol ? 

Ans.-— Silicon ; which is an element that does not exls 



2?6 Dime Question Books. 

in the free state in nature, although it is contained in enor- 
mous quantities in combination with O. Silicon oxide 
(Si0 2 ) Silica or Silex is known as quartz or rock crystal, 
and it is found in almost all rocks; as sand, sandstone, and 
flint are more or less pure silica. It forms with metals com- 
pounds called silicates. It is tasteless, odorless, and color- 
less. Glass and clay are silicates, so therefore are bricks, 
pottery and china, which are made from clay. The four 
varieties of glass are (1), Window or plate; (2), FJint or crys- 
tal; (3), Bohemian; and (4), Green bottle-glass. 

Note.— Glass was known to the ancients. Hieroglyphics, that 
are older than the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt, represent 
glass-hlowers at work, much after the fashion of the present. In 
the ruins of Nineveh, articles of glass, such as vases, howls, etc., 
have heen discovered. Mummies 3,000 years old are adorned with 
glass heads. The inventor is not known. Pliny tells us that some 
merchants, once encamping on the sea-shore, found in the remains 
of their fire hits of glass, formed from the sand and ashes of the 
sea- weed hy the heat; but this is impossible, as an open fire is not 
sufficient to melt these materials. In the fourth century B. C, the 
glass-works at Alexandria produced exquisite ornaments, with 
raised figures beautifully cut and gilded. But in the twelvth cen- 
tury, A. D., glass was still so costly in England that glass windows 
were thought to be very magnificent; and, as late even as about 
1500, when the great Earl of Northumberland left one of his houses 
for a time, he was careful to have the glass of the windows taken 
down and packed for safe keeping. 

Query.— How is glass made ? In coloring glass what does Co 
give? As? Cu? What is Prince Rupert's Drop? Why is Borax 
employed in welding ? What place was regarded as the entrance 
of hell ? Why do not stones burn as well as wood ? What is an- 
nealing ? 

33. Describe Sulphur. 

Ans. — S, or brimstone, is a yellow solid element found 
native in volcanic regions and is mined at Mount ^Etna in 
great quantities. It is in the form of fine yellow powder, 



Chemistry. 277 

flour of sulphur, and in sticks or rolls. If we heat a small 
portion of sulphur in a spoon over a flame, it first melts, 
then boils, and then takes fire and burns away entirely,, 
giving off a pale blue flame. It is used for putting on the 
ends of matches and in the manufacture of gunpowder, 
which is a mixture of sulphur, charcoal, and nitre. 

34. What is the "king of the acids"? 

Ans.— Sulphuric Acid (H 2 SOJ, Oil of Vitriol. It is of 
the utmost importance to the manufacturer and chemist, 
as it is used in the preparation of nearly all other acids, 
and forms many valuable compounds. 

35. What name signifies "light-bearer?" 

Ans. — Phosphorus. It was called by the old alche- 
mists " the son of Satan." In nature it is similar to Si but 
is contained in the bones of animals in combination with 
oxygen and the metal calcium, forming calcium phosphate. 
When a bone is burnt, a white porous mass is left called 
bone ash, and from this, phosphorus can be prepared. P, 
like C, exists in two different forms: one is known as yei- 
.ow or common phosphorus; the other as red phosphorus. 
These two kinds differ very much in their properties. 

Note.— Prof. Remsen, of Johns Hopkins University, has Just 
discovered a white phosphorus. (Jan. 17th, '83. j 

36. What is Hydrogen Phosphide? 

Ans. — A poisonous gas, remarkable for its disgusting 
odor, for igniting spontaneously on coming to the air, and 
for the singular beauty of the rings formed by its smoke. 
It has been thought by some that the Will-o'-the-wisp, 
Jack-o'-the-lantern, etc., as seen near graveyards and in 



278 Dime Question Books. 

swampy places, are produced by this gas coining off from 
decaying substances, and igniting as it reaches the air. 

Experiment— Put a piece of P about the size of a grain of wheat 
on a porous paper and sprinkle over it a little lamp black or dried 
pulverized charcoal. In a few minutes P will ignite. The C ab- 
sorbs O from the air. Heat is produced by the condensation and 
at the same time is brought in contact with P, resulting in the 
combination P s Os. 

37. Describe Arsenic. 

Ans. — As is found native, and is chiefly obtained from 
Fe As 8 and Fe S 2 , Fe As 3 , arsenical pyrites, by roasting: is 
a brittle steel gray solid of metallic lustre commonly sold 
when impure, as cobalt, though the latter is a 'reddish- white 
metal, found in combination with As. It volatilizes at 180° 
with an odor of garlic; burns with a bluish-white flame and 
is very poisonous in all its compounds. 

Note.— H3 As, arseniuretedhydrogen,or arsine, is important a3 
affording a means of detecting the presence of As in compounds. 
AS2O3, arsenious anhydride, is a white powder (the arsenic of 
commerce)— the well-known "ratsttane"— used in the manufacture 
of glass, and many pigments, and for preserving the skins of ani- 
mals. As is soluble in hot H2O, and has a slightly sweetish taste. 
It is a powerful poison, doses of two or three grains being fatal, 
although an overdose sometimes acts as an emetic. It is an anti- 
septic, and so in cases of poisoning frequently attracts attention 
by the preservation of parts of the body, even 20 or 30 years after 
the murder has been committed. The usual antidote for corrosive 
sublimate, is milk or white of eggs or any ordinary emetic. The 
exact chemical remedy for arsenic is hydrated ferric oxide. 

38. Name some of the discoverers of the ele- 
ments. 

Ans.— K, Pt, and Na were discovered by Sir Humphrey 
Davy in 1807. The next year, he discovered Ba, Ca, Mg, 
and Sr. Berzelius, in 1817, discovered Se; in 132b Si; in 






Chemistby. 279 

1823 Th. Other well-known discoverers are Tennant 
Woehler, Woilaston, Klaproth, etc., etc. iecna ^> 

39. What are the metals of the alkalies ? 

Am-Potassium, Sodium, Lithium, Caesium, Rubi- 
dium, and Ammonium, which is a compound radical 
Caesium (Cs) and Rubidium (Rb) are only found Tn 
small quantities. These metals possess strongly alkaline 
properties-the power of turning red litmus papt blue 
and of neutralizing acids-have a whitish to grayish color 
malleable, ductile, and are so soft as to be worked with 
the fingers. „• 

40. What is Kalium ? 

ANs.-Potassium (K) the metal contained in the alkali 
potash, and in the potash salts. The latter are ton" din 
many places in the earth, and also in the ashes of plants 
An acre of wheat producing 25 bnshels of grain and 3,000 
bs.of straw, removes about 40 Ibs.of potash in the crop. An 

staTk^fiT' Pr f ° dUCiDS 10 ° bUShe!s ' remOTes ia k *ruel and 
stalk loO lbs. of potash and 80 lbs. of phosphoric acid. An 

acre of potatoes, yielding 300 bushels, will remove in tubers 

and tops 400 lbs. of potash and 150 lbs. of phosphoric acd 

A pound of wheat holds a quarter of an ounce of mint£ 

stances, and a pound of potatoes one-eigluh of an" 

dye ST waa^H "sf £* ? - S ^ PhateS ? 0t * at ls **- 
dnced? Wh«V u .. > How is Carbon Disulphide (CS.) pro- 

gtowt; sss t nse ™ ? ™»*«.«si 

fire"? TTnw u , n r> ety Matcn es made? What is "fox- 



180 Dime Question Book. 

41. WhatisKNCM 

Ans. — Nitrate of Potash, Saltpetre, or Nitre; a salt found 
is an efflorescence on the soil in tropical regions, especially 
in Iadia. It is obtained thence by leacldng. It is formed 
artificially by piling up great heaps of mortar, refuse of 
Sinks, stables, etc. In about three j^ears, these are washed, 
and each cubic foot of the mixture will furnish four or 
five ounces of saltpetre. 

42. Describe Sodium. 

Ans. — Na is the metal found principally in "common 
fait. It can not be kept in the air, because it at once oxy- 
dizes and forms a white powder; neither can it be allowed 
to join H 2 0, as it will at once combine with O and set free 
H. Of the soda salts, rock-salt is found in largest quantity : 
it is obtained from mines in Cheshire, Cracow, Spain and 
Idaho, and from sea-water by evaporation. 

Experiment— To obtain sodium sulphate or Glauber's salts, 
pour sulphuric acid upou common salt ; a dense fume o hydrochlo- 
3ic acid gas comes.off, and sodium sulphate is left. 

43. What is common soda ? 

Ans.— Bicarbonate of Soda (HNa C0 3 , or Na 2 0. H 3 0, 
IC0 2 ) which is prepared by the action of C0 3 on sodium 
carbonate. The CO a may be easily liberated by the action 
of an acid. 

44. What compound has never been separa- 
ted? 

Ans. — Ammonium (H 4 N), which acts like a metal, form- 
ing salts and amalgams; H 4 NHO is common ammonia wa- 
ter; H 4 N salts are obtained by distilling nitrogenous bodies. 
Its chief compounds are H 4 NC1, sal ammoniac; 2H 4 NO, 






Chemistry. 281 

3C0 2 + 3H 8 0, sal-volatile; (H 4 N) 2S0 4 ; H 4 N, N0 8 ; Na 
H 4 N HP0 4 -j- 4H 2 G, microcosmic salt; (H 4 N) 2 S, H 4 N 
Brand 4H 4 I, used in photography. 

45. What are the metals of the alkaline 
earths ? 

Ans.— Calcium (Ca), Barium (Ba) and Strontium (Sr) 
Ca is a metal which is very difficult to obtain in the pure 
state, although its compounds are very common. Quick- 
lime is calcium oxide; chalk, marble, limestone, and coral 
are all calcium carbonate; gypsum is calcium sulphate; 
and bone earth is calcium phosphate. Whitewash is a 
"milk of lime ", or lime diffused through water. Concrete 
is a cement of coarse gravel and water-lime. It is of great 
durability. Calcimine is a variety of whitewash made of 
whiting or of plaster of Paris. 

JSTote.— H 3 charged with C0 2 dissolves CaC0 3 (calcium car- 
bonate) freely, which, when the gas escapes on exposure to the 
air, is deposited. In limestone regions, the water trickling down 
into cavejns has formed "stalactites," which depend from the 
ceiling, and " stalagmites", that rise from the floor. These fre- 
quently assume curious and grotesque forms, as in the Mammoth 
Cave. Sr and Ba are very much like Ca. The first is used mJmakiDg 
crimson flames. The principal compounds are Ba (N0 4 ) 3 , used 
for making green flames in fireworks, and Ba Cl 3 used for detec- 
tion of sulphuric acid and its salts. 

46. Of what is Mg the symbol ? 

Ans.— Of Maguesium, a soft, silver -white metal found 
in hornblende, meerschaum, soap stone, talc, and other 
rocks. Its salts give the bitter taste to sea-water. Mg- 
Co 3 is the "magnesia alba" or common magnesia of the 
drug store. 

Experiment-Taking some of this white powder, warm it in a 
test tube with a few drops of sulphuric acid, when the powder will 



282 Dime Question Books. 

dissolve. Then pour tlie clear solution into a porcelain basin, and 
boil off the greater part of the water. On cooling, some long 
needle-shaped crystals will be found in the basin. These crystals 
are magnesium sulphate, or Epsom Salts ; a compound of magnesia 
and sulphuric acid. 

47. From what is Aluminum named ? 

Ans. — Al is named from alum,in which it occurs. It i? 
also called the "clay metal", and is the metallic base of 
clay, slate, mica, and feldspar rocks. It is a bright, silver- 
white metal and next to O and Si is probably th£ most 
abundant element of the earth's crust. The manufacture 
of the metal is expensive, owing to the difficulty of separat- 
ing O from the clay. The most important salt is ammonium 
alum, a double sulphate of Al and K or H 4 N. The hydrate 
Al 8 (HO) 6 is used for "fixing" dyes. 

48. What is glazing ? 

Ans. — Spreading a mixture of the coarse materials from 
which glass is made over the article, and then heating till 
it melts and forms a glazing over the clay. Ordinary stone- 
ware is glazed by simply throwing damp Nad into the 
furnace. This volatilizes, and being decomposed by the 
hot clay makes a sodium silicate over the surface, while 
fumes of HC1 escape. The color of pottery- ware and brick 
is due to the oxide of iron present in the clay.- 

49. How have many of the metals been dis- 
covered? 

Ans. — By Spectrum Analysis. Various metals impart 
a peculiar color to flame. Na gives a yellow tinge, copper 
a green, Sr a crimson, etc. If we look at these colored 
flames through a prism, we see, instead of the ordinary 
"spectrum," a dark space strangely ornamented with 



Chemistry. 28S 

bright-tinted lines. Each metal makes a distinctive spec- 
trum, even when the flame is colored by several substances 
at once, By this delicate method of analysis y-giroooooo °f 
a grain of Na can be detected in the flame of an alcohol 
lamp. 

Query— What two metals can be obtained from sodium? How 
much salt is there in the Ocean? A gallon of sea-water contains 
how much salt? Where is Lithium found? For what is lime valu- 
able ? How i3 "hard finish" made ? What is mortar? What per 
cent of CO2 is fatal ? What is mordant ? Where must sodium be 
kept ? What is the most abundant of all the elements ? How 
many alums are there ? 

50. What is the sj 7 mbol of civilization ? 

Ans. — Iron. Fe is rarely found native, but is dug from 
"mother-earth" as an ore from which the metal is ob- 
tained with difficulty. Meteors, however, containing as 
high as 93 per cent, of Fe associated with Ni and other 
metals, have fallen to the earth from space. One most 
useful ore of iron is red iron oxide, called haematite iron 
ore. By heating this with charcoal the oxygen is eliminated, 
and the metal Fe remains. After puddling this is called 
wrought or malleable Fe, because it can be hammered and 
made (when red hot) into anything which is wanted. 
This form is very useful because when hot two pieces of 
Fe can be welded together so firmly that they can not be 
separated. 

Note.— Cast-iron is made from iron ore and coal, and lime- 
stone, by placing these minerals in blast furnaces. Cast-iron is 
brittle and breaks into pieces under the hammer. By a process 
called puddling, the carbon, which the cast-iron has obtained 
from the coal is burnt away. It is an exception to the law that 
" cold contracts," since at the very instant of solidification it ex- 
pands, so as to copy exactly every line of the mould into which it 
is poured. 



284 Dime Question Books. 

51. How is steel made ? 

Ans. — It contains less C than cast, and more than 
wrought iron, and is made from the former by burning 
out a part of the C, and from the latter by heating in boxes 
of charcoal, and so adding C. The value of steel depends 
largely upon its temper. 

Note— In 1760, there lived, at Attercliffe, near Sheffield, a 
watchmaker named Huntsman. He became dissatisfied with the 
watch-springs in use, and set himself to the task of making them 
homogeneous. "If," thought he, "I can melt a piece of steel and 
■cast it into an ingot, its composition should be the same through- 
out." He succeeded. His steel became famous, and Huntsman's 
ingots were in universal demand. He did not call them cast-steel. 
That was his secret. The process was wrapped in mystery by 
every means. The most faitbful men were hired. The work was 
divided, large wages paid, and stringent oaths taken. One mid- 
winter night, as the tall chimneys of the Attercliffe steel-works 
belched forth their smoke, a belated traveler knocked at the gate. 
It was bitter cold ; the snow fell fast ; and the wind howled across 
the moor. The stranger, apparently a common farm laborer seek- 
ing shelter from the storm , awakened no suspicion. The foreman, 
scanning him closely, at last granted his request and let him in. 
Feigning to be worn-out with cold and fatigue, the poor fellow sank 
upon the floor and was soon seemingly fast asleep. That, however, 
was far from his intention. Through cautiously opened eyes he 
caught glimpses of the mysterious process. He saw workmen cut 
bars of steel into bits, place them in crucibles, which were then 
thrust into furnaces. The fires were then urged to their utmost 
intensity until the steel melted. The workmen, clothed in rags, 
wet to protect them from the tremendous heat, drew forth the 
glowing crucibles and poured their contents into moulds. Hunts- 
man's factory had nothing more to disclose, The secret of cast- 
steel was stolen. 

Experiment — Place about a table spoonful of FeS in a 
bottle. Pour in two or three teaspoon- fuls of HC1. Pass 
the end of the delivery bottle into a bottle of cold H s O. 
H S S gas is generated and will be partly dissolved in H 8 0. 
It is readily recognized from its offensive odor, which is 
similar to that of decayed eggs. FeS -{- 2HC1 = FeCl 8 -j- 



Chemistey. 285 

H 8 8. Remark. H 2 S is a test for silver, lead, etc. This- 
explains why silver spoons are blackened when used with 
eggs. 

Experiment 2. — Into a clean wine glass, pour a few drops 
of Tincture of Galls; to this add a solution of FeS0 4 — 
a purple color, changing to black, is the result. Rationale. 
This black fluid is Ink, formed by the combination of the 
Gallic acid of the Tincture, with the iron, forming Gallate 
of iron, which is black. 

52. Describe Manganese. 

Ans. — Mn is related to Fe and Or, is obtained from Mn 
8 , Mn 2 3 , and is seldom used except in compounds. By 
fusing Mn0 3 , KC10 3 , and KHO, a dark, green mass is ob- 
tained called "cliameUon mineral." K 2 0, Mn 2 7 or KMn 
4 is used as an oxidizing agent and disinfectant. Mn 
compounds are also used for coloring glass, and in the 
preparation of CI. 

~53. What is Zinc? 

Aks. — Zn or "spelter" is found as ZnO (redocride) and aa 
ZnS {blende) or zinc sulphide. It is used in galvanic bat- 
teries, and in sheet form for roofing. ZnO is a light white 
powder when cold, yellow when hot, and used in paint as 
"zinc white." Zinc sulphate (ZnSOJ, white vitriol, is used 
in medicine. 

54. How is tin reduced ? 

Ans. — From its binoxide by the action of C. Sn is a 
bright white metal, much used for "plating" iron. Com- 
mon tin-plate is really iron-plate, which is covered with Sn, 
by dipping Fe into melted Sn. This coating preserves Fe 
from rttst. Sn is used in making such alloys as pewter, 



286 Dime Question Books. 

Britannia metal, etc. Its most important ore is an oxide 
of tin, known as "tin stone" found in Cornwall, England. 

Query— How do brass pins get their white surface ? What is 
the "tin-cry"? How is the temperature of steel determined? 
What is the meaning of Ferrum ? What is spath ? Gray cast- 
iron contains what per cent, of C ? What is spiegel-eisen? Define 
"Fool's Gold." Describe Bessemer's Process. What is Fe So4, 
7H 3 ? How is galvanized iron prepared? What is Philosopher's 
Wool ? What is the fusing point of Tin ? 

55. "What metal is found near Lake Superior ? 

Ans. — Copper. Cu is a reddish colored metal found 
native in Minnesota and is also obtained from copper ores, 
of which, there are several kinds. Cu is much used in mix- 
ing with other metals yielding an alloy, such as brass and 
bronze. When copper is heated in the air, it tarnishes, 
and then becomes covered with a black coating of oxide 
(CuO), which is very poisonous. 

Experiment. — Place some copper filings in a dish and 
pour on them a few drops of nitric acid. Dense brownish 
red fumes will be given off from the nitric acid, and a blue 
solution of copper nitrate will be formed. 

Note.— There is no real distinction between organic and 
inorganic chemistry, many compounds found first in living bodies, 
and supposed to be formed in them, having been artificially pro- 
duced, While inorgonic bodies deal with sixty-four elements, 
organic are composed principally of only four, C, H, "N, and O. As 
is their characteristic element, they are frequently styled the 
'•carbon compounds." Bodies which contain the same elements 
In the same proportions by weight, and yet exhibit different physi- 
cal and chemical properties, are called Isomeric, and may be so 
from two causes. 



56. What is the most common ore of Lead 
Ans.— Galena (PbS), from which it is obtained by oxi 



<Pb)1 



Chemistry. 28? 

dizing -the S in a furnace. It is a bluisk-gray naetal pois- 
onous, soon losing its luster by oxidation; very malleable 
very soft, and but slightly ductile or tenacious; when 
heated itforms litharge, PbO. At still greater heat, red 
lead or Fb 8 4 , acted upon by HN0 3 , acetic a<M. 

PhM?Pbs" H ! ^ J 1 ?^ ** Fh W " h Which " forms th * le^ sul- 
phide, PbS. Add a little gum-arabic to a solution of lead acetate 

tow^ttttemlxtnre from flowing too freely froni £?£?!£ 
then make a drawing of any subject. Tbis sketch, when dry, wiU 
benmsible When ready for use, dampen the paper slight yon 
the wrong side, and then direct against it ajetofH s S. Ihe pic- 
ture wil at once blacken into distinctness. The lead acetete^sa 
virulent poison, with a sweet, pleasant taste. 

57. What is smelting ? 

ANs.-The process of getting the metals from the ores. 
lhat toanch of science which treats of the formation 
origin and working of metals, is called metallurgy. 

Experiment. -Add a small solution of potassium 
chromate to a glass of water, in which there is a solution of 
lead acetate. A splendid yellow precipitate of lead chro- 
mate or chrome yellow will be produced. Again dissolve 
a little -sugar of lead » in water and fill a dean vial with 
the solution. If a piece of Zn, cut in small strips, be sus- 
pended in the vial, the Zn will blossom out with beauti- 
ful crystals of metallic lead. The Pb has been deposited 
upon the Zn by chemical action. This is called the " Lead- 
Tree. M 

58. Name the noble metals. 

A NS ._Gold, Silver, Platinum, Mercury, Palladium 
Indium, Osmium, Ruthenium, and Rhodium. Au is the 
most valuable of metate. It has a beautiful yellow color 
*nd is one of the heaviest of the known metals. It pos- 



283 Dime Question Books. 

eesses great ductility, can be drawn out into very thin wire 
or beaten into thin plates called gold leaf, whieh is much 
used for gilding. Au never tarnishes in the air or becomes 
stained with S like Ag and consequently has been used 
in jewelry and for coin from the earliest times. 

Experiment. — Gold will not dissolve in any one acid. 
Taking a leaf of gold, divide it into two pieces, and place 
each piece in a separate glass. Pour upon one a little hy- 
drochloric add; upon the other a little nitric acid. The 
Au in neither glass will dissolve, lout mix the two and the 
metal will rapidly disappear. 

Query.— What is the green coating that gathers upon brass or 
copper? What is " blue-stone?" What are the uses of C11SO4, 
5H2O? Describe the "Music of Science." What is an amalgam? 
Describe the process of gold-washing in Australia and California. 
What is White-Lead? 

59. Which is the whitest of the metals ? 

Ans. — Ag, whose common form is black sulphide, 
Ag 3 S; horn-silver AgCl; or ruby-silver when united with 
S and As or Sb. It is very malleable, ductile and an ex- 
cellent conductor of heat and electricity. Of its compounds 
silver nitrate ( AgN0 3 ) sold in small, round sticks as 
lunar caustic is the most extensively used, being the 
basis of indelible inks and hair-dyes, and also of photog- 
raphy and daguerreotyping. 

60. Describe Platinum. 

Ans. — Pt is the most important of the tetrad group. 
It is of a whitish color resembling Ag in appearance and 
has such extreme ductility that wire is made from it so 
fine as to be invisible to the naked eye. The largest nug- 
get of Pt ever found weighed 18 lbs. Spongy Pt absorbs 



Chemistry. 28& 

800 times its volume of 0. The "ore," as it is called, k 
separated from the earthy particles by washing. 

61. What is " quick-silver ? " 

Ans. — The common name of mercury (Hg), so called 
because it moves about as if it had life, and was supposed 
by the alchemists to contain silver. It is prepared by 
roasting HgS in the open air. The S passes off as S0 3 , 
while the Hg volatilizes and is condensed in earthen 
pipes. It is the only metal liquid at ordinary tempera- 
tures, freezes at — 40°, and boils at 662°. It is widely 
used for thermometers, for silvering mirrors, and in its 
amalgams, which it forms with most metals. HgCl, cal- 
omel; HgCl 3 corrosive sublimate; HgO, "red precipitate;" 
and the two iodides, are the chief compounds. 

Note.— Hg is found native in Mexico in very small quantities, 
where the mines are said to have been discovered by a slave, who, 
In climbing a mountain, came to a very steep ascent, and to aid him 
in surmounting this, tried to draw himself up by a bush which 
grew in a crevice above. The shrub, however, giving way, was 
torn up by the roots, and a tiny stream, of what seemed liquid 
silver, trickled down upon him. 

62. Pd is the symbol of what % 

Ans.— Palladium, which ranks next to Pt, to which it 
has a strong resemblance. It is acted upon by the com- 
mon acids, and "occludes" 900 times its volume of H. 
Pt and Pd both from bi as well as tetra- chlorides. Ir, Os, 
Ru, and Ho are used as "iridosmine " for the nibs of gold 
pens. 

63. Name some of the alloys. 

Ans.— German Silver, Britannia, Brass, Pewter, Soft 
Bolder, Bronze, Fusible Metal, etc. Their compounds can 



290 Dime Question Books. 

be learned by reference to any general work on Chemistry. 
Auis soldered with an alloy of itself and Ag; Silver, with 
itself and Cu; Copper, with itself and Zn. Gold coin con- 
sists of nine parts of gold and one of alloy. The alloy is 
composed of 9 parts of Cu, whitened by 1 of Ag, so as not 
to darken the gold coin. Silver coin is nine parts of Ag 
and one of Cu. The nickel cent is 88 parts of Cu and 12 
of JS"i. Cu being cheaper than Ni,is used to make the coin 
larger. 

64. What is the meaning of Stibium ? 

Ans. — It is the classical name for Antimony. Sb is found 
native and also in combination with O, S, and some metals; 
obtained from Stibnite, Sb s S 3 , by roasting with Fe. It is 
a brittle, bluish, white solid, melts at 450°, and burns with 
a white flame at red heat. It is used in type-metal and 
pewter. K, SbO, C 4 H 4 6 forms tartar emetic; SbClg is 
used in bronzing gun barrels and Sb 3 S 8 in blue signal- 
lights. 

Note.— Sb was discovered by Basil Valentine, a monk of Ger- 
many, in the fifteenth century. It is said that, to test its proper- 
ties, he first fed it to the swine kept at the convent, and found that 
they thrived upon it. He then tried it upon his fellow-monks, but 
perceiving that they died in consequence, he forthwith named the 
new metal, in honor(?) of this fact, anti-moine- (anti-monk),when«e 
the term antimony is derived. 

65. For what purpose is Bismuth used? 

Ans. — Bi, a brittle, reddish metal is used in alloys for 
reducing the fusing point and giving a clearly defined im- 
age, and also in thermo electric batteries. 

Note.— Nickel (Ni) and Cobalt (Co) are found native in mete- 
ors and also as sulphates or arsenides. The former is mined in 
Pennsylvania for the United States government to make into cents. 
These metals resemble Fe, but are not readily acted upon by acids. 



Chemistry. 291 

Nl Is much used for plating; forms but one salt, the sulphate of a 
beautiful green tint. Co forms a nitrate. Co(N03)a -|~6HaO, 
used in blow-pipe analysis and for coloring glass. 

66. What are the combining weights of some 
of the elements ? 

Ans.— 0=16; H=l; Si=28; Sa=118;Fe=56; Ag=108; 
Au = 197; C=12; Cl = 35; P=31; Hg=200; Pb=207; 
Na=23; Cu=£3; Zn=65; Pt= ? L is the lightest liquid 
known. Pits the heaviest solid. The most common color 
is white. Steel is the most, and lead the least tenacious of 
the metals. 

Query.— Which are the most malleable ? Most brittle? What 
is the melting point of the different metals? How is paper sensi- 
tized ? From what did Priestly discover O gas ? What alloy con- 
sists of Bi, Pb, and Sn ? What is formed by a union of Cu, Zn, and 
Ni ? Why is an ahoy used in gold or silver coin ? What does the 
term carat mean when applied to the precious metals ? What is 
coelistine ? 

67. From what are carbon compounds derived? 

Ans. —From the four simple compounds CH 4 , Marsh 
Gas, (fatty bodies): C 6 H 8 , Benzine, (aromatic bodies); C 10 
H 8 , Naphthaline, C 14 H 10 Anthracene. These deriva- 
tions form analogous series of homologous compounds, i. e., 
compounds which differ from the preceding or succeeding 
ones in the series by a constant quantity, as CH 4 ; C a H„; 
C 8 H 8 ; which differ from each other by the constant quan- 
tity CH 3 . 

68. What is the compound 6 Hi O 6 I 

Ans.— Both, starch and woody fibre. Starck is made 
from wheat, corn, potatoes, etc. The process is essentially 
the same in all. In fermentation, starch absorbs H t and 
changes to sugar; again absorbing water, it changes to 



292 Dime Question Books. 

grape sugar. In the presence of a ferment the grape sugar 
is changed to C0 3 and alcohol, which being oxidized in 
air becomes acetic acid. 

69. What is yeast? 

Ans.— It is formed during the process of fermentation. 
It consists of microscopic plants (mycoderma cere/oisiae) 
which increase by the formation of multitudes of tiny cells 
not more than g^j- of an inch in diameter. In the brewing 
of beer they spring up in great abundance, making common 
brewer's yeast. 

Notes.— Porcelain cement is made by stirring plaster of Paris 
into a thick solution of gum-arabic, and is best applied with a 
brush. Horn Is colored by boiling it in infusions of colors. Tar 
is made, like charcoal, by burning heaps of wood under a covering 
of earth which excludes the air. For attaching labels to glass or 
porcelain, gum tragacanth is generally employed. Coal-tar is 
formed in the process of making coal-gas. 

70. Name the organic or vegetable acids. 

Am — Citric acid, found in the lemon, strawberry, goose- 
berry, and raspberry. Tartaric, in the grape. Malic, in 
unripe apples. Oxalic, in rhubarb. Tannic, in the leaf and 

bark of trees. 

Note.— The organic bases or alkaloids are the bases of true 
salts found in plants producing opium, nicotine, quinine, mor- 
phine, caffeine, and theine. 

71. What are the coloring substances ? 

Ans. — Madder, Brazil- wood, Indigo, Litmus, Logwood, 
Cookineal, and Leaf-green or chlorophyl. The purple of 
which we read in ancient writings was a secret with the 
Tyiians. King Hiram, we learn, sent a workman to Solo- 
mo© skilled in this art. The dye was obtained from a shell* 



Chemistry. 393 

fish that was found on the coast of Phoenicia. Each ani- 
mal yielded a tiny drop of the precious liquid. A yard of 
ckth dipped twice in this costly dye was worth $150. 

72. What is Qualitative Analysis % 

Ans. — The analysis of inorganic substances ; for 
which purpose it is only necessary for the student to famil- 
iarize himself with the reactions of about twenty-six metals 
and a dozen acids. To be able to apply these tests with 
certainty, in all eases, and to know the easiest and best 
methods of dissolving the substance, constitute a qualita- 
tive chemist. 

Notes.— Mezzotinto owed its invention to the simple accident 
of the gun-barrel of a sentry becoming rusted with dew. Gold 
and platinum are distinguished from all other metals by their in- 
solubility in HC1 or HNO3, but are converted into soluble chlorides 
by aqua regia. Celluloid is a composition of fine tissue paper and 
camphor, treated with chemicals by a patent process. Combus- 
tion is properly the union of bodies with constituents of the sur- 
rounding atmosphere ; usually, however, the term is applied to the 
rapid oxidation of objects in air, accompanied by light. Decay is 
simply a slow form of oxidization. H 2 and CO 2 are the products 
of combustion in the animal body as well as in the flame. 



Brain-Strainers. 



What is rennet? If you ask for Vitriol at the drug-store, 
what do you receive? What is the difference between 
fixed and volatile oils? How does a resin become a balsam? 
What are albuminous bodies? What follows alcoholic 
fermentation? What do you know of domestic chemistry? 
What are the beneficial results of toasting bread? Define 
radicals. Describe cochineal. Where is the ''Home of 
the Gold?" How is chrysoprase colored? Describe the 



294 Dime Question Book. 

manufacture of shot. What is Oreide? What is "alum- 
inum bronze"? Express the compound for cane sugar. 
Rust is what? Paper is made from what? How is linen 
made? What are metameric and polymeric compounds? 
What is the test for adulterated candy? Define Allotrop- 
ism. What is Pyroxylin? , Can sugar be made from an 
old shirt? What occasions kerosene accidents? How can 
you show that vegetable matter contains carbon? Who 
ate Roger Williams? What is the volvox globatort For 
what purposes is HN0 3 used? How is lampblack ob- 
tained? Where is Bunsen's Burner used? Describe the 
oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe. What is the meaning of the 
term cyanogen? How is the calcium light formed? What 
element exists in the enamel of the teeth? What is the 
common name of Hydrocyanic acid (HCy)? What is its 
an&dote? Ans. H 3 N. Is there a "California" of iron? 
What is used in forming a yellowish glaze? What is chalk? 
Describe malachite. How much S in a lb. of H 2 S0 4 ? What 
was manufactured in the mammoth cave of Kentucky 
during the war of 1812? What is the common name of 
sodium carbonate? Of yellow lead oxide? What is the 
chemical name of white lead? Of table salt? How can you 
prove the alloy of a coin ? What is cupellation? Describe 
the photographic process. What is frosted silver f From 
what is iridium named? What is the cause of " painter's 
colic? " What is the meaning of the word platinum? 
Of what is "iodized collodion" composed? What does 
the nitrate of silver bath contain? What is coke? Brit- 
ish Lustre? What is catalysis? Define the term native. 
What is the specific gravity of Mg, HyN, Al, Sn, Pb, and 
Fe? What is the atomic weight of the metals? KNO s -j- 
S 8 S0 4 = what? How was the process of Whitening sugar 
discovered? What was the origin of Lithographing? 
Is the oxalic acid in the pie-plant poisonous? What are the 



Chemistry. $95 

proteine compounds? What is the composition of Petro- 
leum? Of Meerschaum? Of laughing Gas? What are de- 
rivatives? Are you familiar with both the old and the 
new nomenclature? What is the process of making gold- 
leaf? Why is "pig-iron" so called? What is ehromw 
anhydride ? What weight of NaCl would be required to 
form 25 lbs. of muriatic acid? Is saleratus a salt of Na or 
of K? What oil is unctuous t What parts of an inhabited 
room generally contain the greatest quantities of deleteri- 
ous gasses? What is an atmosphere? With what is the 
venom of the rattlesnake isomeric? How are salts formed? 
What are anhydrides? What is meant by saying that Zinc 
is positive to every other metal? Are alkalies bases? Brass 
is a mechanical mixture of what? All true acids are com- 
pounds what? What is likely to be mistaken for arsenic? 
What is the meaning of 0. P. f 




GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY, 



GEOLO&Y f MINERALOGY. 



^&-&-j£jm 



1. "What is the meaning of Geology ? 

Ans. — The word is derived from two Greek words sig- 
nifying the story of the earth. 

Note.— Mineralogy treats of substances simply as they are 
found in nature, without regard to any action that might be induced 
by miDgling them together. It is preparatory to Geology, because 
It gives us a knowledge of the mineral substances which make up 
the rocks. 

Query.— What is a liquid mineral ? What is composed of the 
two mineral gases, oxygen and hydrogen ? Are minerals solid ? 

2. Define crystallization. 

Ans. — When a mineral substance takes on a solid form, 
the atoms or particles are disposed to an arrangement which 
is termed crystallization. It is very definite and exact, with 
straight lines, perfect angles, and plane, smooth faces. 
Crystals of quartz, commonly called rock crystal, are famil- 
iar examples. Mica is another of quite a different kind, 
the crystals being foliated — that is, in leaves. 

Note.— Quartz crystals are sometimes very large. There is 
one at Milan which is 3&.feet long, 5H m circumference, and 
weighs S70 pounds, 

3. What is rock ? 

Ans. — The crust of the earth is made up of a variety of 
solid materials to which the general term rock is given. 
Not only are stony and compact rocks like sandstone, lime- 



300 Dime Question Books. 

stone or granite, included under this term, but soft and 
loose matter such as clay and sand. All solid matter not 
immediately derived from animal or vegetable sources, but 
which occurs naturally in large masses, is called rock'by 

geologists. 

4. What are minerals? 

Ans. — The distinct substances composing rocks are 
called minerals. While some rocks, such as limestones, 
have the same composition throughout, others are formed 
of a mixture of crystals or small particles of different 

kinds. 

Query.— Of what does Geology treat ? Kocks consist of what? 
What is an ore ? What are the characteristics of quartz ? De- 
scribe the cairngorm stone. 

5. What are silicates ? 

Ans. — The name is given to those minerals containing 
silica. While this substance exists abundantly in rocks as 
quartz, it makes also, on an average, a third of all their 
other minerals, limestones excepted. Silica is derived from 
the Latin word silex, meaning flint. 

6. Define Amorphous and Dimorphous. 

Ans. — A mineral is said to be amorphous when it is 
destitute of all trace of crystalline form. When a mineral 
appears in crystals of two forms, sometimes the one and 
sometimes the other, it is said to be dimorphous— dis, twice, 
and morphe, form. 

7. What is one of the most important of min- 
erals ? 

Ans. — Carbon, which is one of the four grand elements 



Geology and Minekalogy. 301 

In the composition of vegetable and animal substances. 
It is known under different forms as the diamond, graph- 
ite, coal, etc. 

Note.— The art of cutting and polishing diamonds was un- 
known till 1456, when it was discovered by Louis Berquen, of 
Bruges. In speaking of the size of diamonds the term carat is 
used. This is the name of a bean, which was used in its dried 
state by the natives of Africa in weighing gold, and in India in 
weighing diamonds. Though the beau is not used for this purpose 
now, the name is retained, and the carat is nearly four grains 
Troy. 

8. "What are the compounds of sulphur ? 

Ans. — Sulphide of Lead, Sulphide of Iron, Sulphide of 
Silver, Sulphide of Antimony, the two sulphides of 
Arsenic, Sulphate of Lead, Sulphates of Magnesia and of 
Soda, Sulphate of Baryta, Sulphuric and Sulphurous 
acids, etc. 

8. Name one of the most common of mineral 
compounds. 

Ans. — Bisulphide of iron which has been known from 
ancient times. It is generally termed pyrites, from the 
Greek word pur, meaning "fire." Pliny says, *' there is 
much fire in it," referring to its readily striking fire with 
steel. 

Note.— Gypsum is a white and soft mineral, and appears In 
many forms, some of which are very beautiful. One of these is 
the satin spar, so called from the splendid lustre of its delicate 
fibrous arrangement. Common limestone has sometimes been 
mistaken for gypsum. 

Query.— How can this error be avoided? Name the ''three 
vitriols." Define realgar and orpiment What is cleavage? What 
are tort? Define slag. 



302 Dime Question Books. 

10. How do we obtain metals from their ores ? 

Ans, — Frequently by a very simple process. In the 
case of bismuth, all that is necessary is to heat the pounded 
ore and the melted metal runs out. With mercury, anti- 
mony, or sulphide of lead, heat will fully decompose the 
compound, driving off the sulphur. An oxide of iron is 
heated with charcoal. The oxygen leaves the iron to unite 
with the carbon, forming carbonic acid, when the latter 
departs, leaving the metallic iron. 

11. In what does native iron occur ? 

Ans. — In meteorites, and there it is alloyed with nickel, 
and with a small amount of other metals, such as tin, 
cobalt, copper, and manganese. 

12. From what is the word hematite derived ? 
Ans.— From the Greek word haima (blood). This oxide 

is distinguished from the magnetic iron ore by its powder 
being red. This mineral appears in various forms, red 
chalk being one of the varieties. 

13. Describe chromic iron. 

Ans. — It is composed chiefly of the oxides of two min- 
erals, iron and chromium. Two other components are 
alumina and magnesia, which vary in quantity in differ- 
ent specimens. This mineral is quite abundant at Bare- 
hills, near Baltimore, in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, 
and several other places in the country. Its crystals are 
octahedrons. For what is it valuable? 

Query.— What are "California diamonds ?" Name the varie- 
ties of quartz. Define hydrated oxide. Wliat is a dodecahedron? 
What do we mean by saying that the hardness Cof Quartz is 7 ? 
(Talc is l, and Diamond is 10). Describe the two carbonates of 
copper. 



Geology and Mineralogy. 303 

Note.— The tin used in making tin ware 13 iron In the form of 
sheets covered with tin, Which does not oxidize as. readily as tin 
does. The chief tin mines are at Cornwall, 1 in England, fn the 
island of Banca, in Malacca, and in Austria. 

14. Give an account of salt. 

Ans. — This is composed of chlorine and 'sodium, two 
elements which never appear in nature uncombined. Its 
crystals are the cube and its secondaries. This mineral is 
very thoroughly diffused in the earth, mostly, however, in 
solution, nearly ^ of all the water in the sea being com- 
mon salt. Lakes that have no outlet to the sea are very 
salt. This is the case with the Great Salt Lake, the Dead 
Sea, and the Caspian Sea. Over $ of the water of the 
Great Salt Lake is salt, and the proportion is even greater 
in the case of the Dead Sea. There are famous salt mines 
where the solid mineral is obtained in Poland, Hungary, 
Spain, Sicily and Switzerland. In the extensive mines 
near Cracow, chapels and halls are excavated far below the 
surface, their roofs being supported by immense pillars of 
salt, which, on being lighted, present a magnificent appear- 
ance. In northern Africa there are hills of salt. In this 
country vast quantities of salt are obtained by evaporation 
from the water of salt springs. The springs in Onondaga 
county, N. Y., are the most productive, \ part of the water 
being salt. In hot climates, much salt is obtained from 
sea-water by evaporation. 

15. What is marble? 

Ans. — The finest white marble, like that of Carrara in 
Italy and the island of Paros, of which the most delicate 
statues are carved, is carbonate of lime altered and hardened 
by volcanic heat. 

Note,— To make mortar of lime, it must be softened and then 



304: Dime Question Books. 

brought into a state In which it can be hardened again. This dis- 
covery was probably very ancient; and made, probably like most 
of the old discoveries, in the East, spreading westward gradually. 
The earlier Greek buildings are cyclopean, i. e., of stone fitted to- 
gether without mortar. The earlier Egyptian buildings, though 
the stones are exquisitely squared and polished, are put together 
without mortar. The famous aqueduct of the Pont du Gard, near 
Nismes, in the south of France, has no mortar whatever in it, iThe 
stones of its noble double tier of circular arches have been dropped 
into their places upon the wooden centres, and stand unmoved to 
this day, simply by the jamming of their own weight; a miracle of 
art. 

16. Name the classes of rocks. 

Ans. — Stratified, fragmentary, arenaceous, argillaceous, 
calcareous, carbonaceous, metamorphic, igneous, volcanic, 
and granitic. 

IT. What is said of the aqueous origin of 
stratified rocks ? 

Ans. — The surface rocks of the land are continually 
being worn away by the action of rain, frost, running wa- 
ter, and other natural agents. The wasted material is 
carried away by streams and rivers into lakes or the sea, 
where it collects at the bottom, forming layers or beds. 
Sea-breakers act destructively on the coasts, tearing away 
particles and fragments, and rolling them outwards into 
deeper water, where they accumulate, and form beds simi* 
larto those formed by the material brought down by rivers. 
Mineral matter enters into the composition of these beds, 
and the remains of marine animals become buried in the 
sediments which are forming. 

18. What is conglomerate {puddingstone)? 

Ans. — A rock consisting of pebbles cemented together, 
the cementing material filling the interstices and render- 






Geology ai*d Minee4J$£y. SftSt 

ing the whole compact. Breccia i% .a'jTook consisting:^ 
angular fragments consolidated into -Jiayjl.*tiHie, .■ 

"■ 

19. Define mud ? 

Ans. — A finely-powdered mineral matter, generally 
mixed with particles derived^fixjm-;Yegtiab:QTt^ci animal 
sources. It is the result of ifc# waste of rocks by running 
water and other natural agents, _ 3Iud is the ultimate pro- 
duct of the action of these agents on the, softer rocks r and. 
of their prolonged action on the harder ones. 

20. What resembles mud? 

Aks. — Clay doe%^t^Jppeness--of its pm'iicles^but/the 
particles adhere together,, forming a tough material easily 
moulded by the Jmgejs. , Sliale igj harxlened mud or clay- 
which splits into thin- plates or la mi use parallel : .ta the 
stratification. ;£ Suc^ %.rock- is said to he lamtaaiecL 

Notes — Oolite or Boe Stt*89§d& limestone- n-jade ift of sib^f 

round grains, which gives it a stnicture resembling the roe of a 

fish, Pisolite or veagpit^ has r .a similar structure to ooliter, biit^he 

grains are flkt antf aslai^e ( as pea? "nsa variety of niagrie- 

sian limestone more or less crystalline. The crystals, are small 

and compact. Marl is calcareous clay. _ _. _.. 

ri .and n ; 3 !-= ,azA 

/ 9dT IB RjIoOT 

2f . w nat |gg m^am orpine rocks i m ^ 

Axs — Stratified rocks which Lave "undergone ^»:Ciia3iget 

of structure since they were deposited. Their stratified 
character leaves no doubt of their sedimentary origin, hufc 
frequently all other traces of aqueous agency are obliter- 
ated, and they become more or less 'crystalline. 

10 I9QUUI11 . . ..Ui OB 10 1 Mlilhlte B ,.9 .1 Jfi 

22. Describe ?7z?Va schist. 

Aks.— It is aSeock consisting ef [alternate i 3Sihinffl£ of 



306* Dime Question Books. 

mica and quartz. The original texture of the rock is quite 
obliterated. It readily splits into thin laminae or plates of 
different mineral matter. Such mode of division is called 
foliatim, and rocks which so divide are called foliated or 
schistose. 

Query.—Ot what Is gneiss composed? "What is serpentine? 
Name the forms of calcareous rocks. What is " quartzite "? De- 
fine sandstone, flagstone, and gritstone. What is sand? loam? 
Explain the difference between a siliceous conglomerate and a cal- 
careous conglomerate. 

23. What are the various forms of igneous 

rocks ? 

Ans.— Granite like rocks (including granite, syenite, 
and hyposyenite), diorite, dolerite, peridotite, porphyry, 
trachite, lava, and scoria. Scoria is a light lava, full of 
cavities, like a sponge; and pumice, a white or grayish 
feldspathic scoria, having the air-cells long and slender, so 
that it looks as if it were fibrous. 

24. Under what three conditions do rock- 
masses occur ? 

Ans.— Stratified, Unstratified, Vein form. Stratified 
rocks are those which lie in beds or strata. The word 
itratum (the singular of strata) is from the Latin, and sig- 
nifies that which is spread out. 

Note.— It is from stratified rocks that geologists glean the 
history of the earth in past .ages. Their position reveals the dif- 
ferent convulsions of the earth by which their horizontal position 
has been disturbed. A layer Is one of the sub-divisions of a 
stratum; i. e., a stratum may consist of an indefinite number ol 
layers. 

25. What are unstratified rocks ! 



(xEOLOGT AND MlNEBALOGY. 307 

Am — Those which do not lie in beds or strata. Moun- 
tain-masses of granite are often without any appearance of 
stratification. The rock of the Palisades, on the Hudson, 
stands up with a bold columnar front, and has no division 
into layers, There are similar rocks about Lake Superior. 

26. Describe the vein-form condition. 

Am— When rocks have been fractured, and the fis- 
sures thus made have been filled with rock-material of any 
kind, or with metallic ores, the fillings are called veins, 
Veins, therefore, are large or small, deep or shallow, single 
or like a complete network, according to the character of 
the fractures in which they were formed. They may be 
as thin as paper, or they may be yards, or even rods in 
width, 

27. ISTarne some of the dislocations of strata. 

Ans. — Most of the strata of the globe have lost their 
original horizontal position, and are more or less inclined ; 
some are even vertical. The following are terms used in 
describing the positions of strata. Outcrop, Dip, (when 
the strata slant they are said to be inclined), Anticlinal, 
Synclinal, Monoclinal, etc. "When two strata dip in dif- 
ferent directions from a common ridge they are said to 
form a saddleback. The headland or bluff formed by the 
end of a number of strata is called an escarpment. 

Note.— The layers of stratified rocks always occur In regular 
order; we do not mean that every variety of stratified rock will be 
found by digging from tlie surface of the earth downward, but that 
no rock will be found out of its regular order in a series unless the 
strata has been torn asunder by disrupting causes. For instance, 
it would be useless to dig for coal below clay slate, or for chalk be- 
low coal, while the latter would be likely to underlie magnesia* 
limestone. A certain stratum may be missing, but if it is, the re- 



308 Dime Question Books. 

maining strata will occupy their original position in regard tr 
each other. 

Query.— What word is formed from yij and A. 6y o?? "What if 
gravel? What is the "toad-stone ?" What is a formation? A 
group? Describe tufa. Define itacolumite. What are rill-marks? 
A basin is what ? 



28. What is known of the origin of granite ? 

Ans. — Nothing. The foundation upon which the soil 
and loose rocks of the earth rest is composed of granite, or 
granitic rocks; hence, when the poet speaks of anything 
being as firm as the "eternal granite," his simile is grandly 
true. 

"29. Of what is granite composed ? 

Ans. — In its pure state it is formed of quartz, feldspar, 
and mica; the first forming the hard flinty crystals, the 
second, the soft grayish particles which can be easily 
scratched, and the mica forming the shining transparent 
scales. 

Note.— When the feldspar contains a large proportion of oxide 
of iron (iron rust) the granite is of a reddish color. When horn- 
blende, a dark green or black mineral, takes the place of tbe mica, 
the granite is then called Syenite, from Syene in Egypt where it 
is very abundant. 

30. Where is granite found ? 

Ans. — It is quarried in great quantities in the Eastern 
States for building purposes. New Hampshire and Massa- 
chusetts are noted for their extensive beds. They may be 
called the Granite States of the Union. The granite is de« 
tached in blocks by drilling a series of holes, one every 
few inches, to a depth of three inches, and then driving in 
wedges of iron between steel cheeks. In this manner 



Geology and Mineralogy. 309 

masses of any size split out. There is a choice of direction, 
as the granite has certain directions of easiest fracture^ 
Masses 120 feet in length have been obtained at some of the 
quarries. Granite was highly prized by the ancients. 
There are granite obelisks in Egypt which have stood for 
3,000 years. Pompey's Pillar and several of the principal 
Pyramids are composed of this material. 

Query—What is Cleopatra's Needle ? Have you read "Kings- 
ley's Town Geology ?" Of what is Bunker Hill Monument built ? 
What is porphyry? -What other names are applied to Andalusite? 
Name some works of art wrought from Parian marble. From what 
are slate-pencils made ? What are trap-rocks ? Where is there 
some noted trappean scenery ? 

81. What is kaolin f 

Ans. — The name given to feldspar when decomposed 
by the air. It is used in the manufacture of the finest 
kinds of china-ware. 

Note.— There are many varieties of granite formed by the 
admixture of talc, hypersthene steatite, schorl and other miner- 
als: but the structure of the rock is always the same, massive and 
Irregular; and its texture is always crystalline, sometimes hard 
and close-grained and again coarse and loose. 

32. Describe Zircon. 

Ans. — A mineral which occurs in square prisms, termi- 
nated with four-sided pyramids. Its color is red, brown, 
or gray. Its hardness is 7.5. It is found in granite, gneiss, 
granular limestone, and volcanic rocks. Clear red speci- 
mens are called Hyacinili, to be found at Litchfield, Me., 
Hammond, N". Y., Franklin, N. J., and at Green River, 
Henderson county, N. C. At the latter place the crystals 
occur loose in the soil and in the greatest abundance. 
Clear specimens of this mineral are used for gems, and for 
jewelling watches. 



310 Dime Question Books. 

83. What is Amethyst? 

Aks.— A purple variety of crystallized quartz. It ia 
colored by tlie oxide of manganese, or by iron and soda. It 
was named by, the ancients, who believed that wine drunk 
from goblets made from this mineral would not intoxicate; 
and this idea is expressed in its name. 

Note,— Amethyst has always been esteemed as a gem, but is 
more brilliant by sunlight than by gaslight. Fine cabinet speci- 
mens are found in Lincoln county, N. C. Small crystals are plen- 
tiful on Mount Holyoke. The finest varieties used for jewelry are 
brought from Brazil, Ceylon, India, Siberia, and from various 
parts of Europe. 

34. Explain the difference between Onyx and 
Sardonyx. 

Ans. — When the colors of the agate are arranged in 
horizontal layers or bands, it is called Onyx, and is the 
stone used in making real cameos. When the layers are 
sard and white chalcedony, it is called Sardonyx. 

Query.— What is chalcedony? Give the name of the leek-green 
variety of chalcedony. Where is carnelian found? Moonstone and 
Sunstone are varieties of what? What is the hardness of mica? 
Name the kiEfds of garnet. 

, 35, Of what is basalt composed ? 

Ans. — Augite and feldspar ; it closely resembles 
greenstone is compact, and of a dark color. It often 
exhibits a columnar structure. Fine examples occur 
along the Columbia river in Oregon, and on the nOrth 
ghore of Lake Superior. Fingal's Cave, on the island of 
gtaffa, and the Giant's Causeway, Ireland, afford wonder- 
ful exhibitions of columnar, basalt. 

86. What are the four branches of Geology % 



Geology and Mineralogy. 311 

Ans. — Physiographic, Lithological, Historical and 
Dynamical. Dynamical Geology treats of the causes or 
origin of events in Geological history, — that is, of the 
origin of rocks, of disturbances of the earth's strata and 
the accompanying effects, of valleys, of mountains, of 
continents, and of the changes in the earth's features, cli- 
mate and living species. 

37. Name the agencies of most importance. 

Ans>- Next to the universal power of Gravitation, are 
Life, the Atmosphere, Water, Heat, and Cohesive and 
Chemical attraction. 

Note.— Aqueous agencies operate In the form of Rains, Frost, 
Springs, Rivers, Waves, Currents, Glaciers, and Icebergs. 

38. Give some illustrations of the work of 
life. 

Aks, — Peat formations, Beds of Microscopic organisms, 
and Coral-reefs. Peat is an accumulation or half decom- 
posed vegetable matter formed in wet or sw r ampy places. In 
temperate climates it is due mainly to the growth of mosses 
of the genus Sphagnum, These mosses form a loose turf; 
and, as they have the property of dying at the extremities 
of the roots while increasing above, they may gradually 
form a bed of great thickness. 

Note.— The roots and leaves of other plants, or their branches 
and stumps, and any other vegetation present, may contribute to 
the accumulating bed. The carcasses and excrements of dead an- 
imals at times become included. Dust may also be blown over the 
marsh by the winds, 

39. What is said of microscopic life ? 

Ans. — It abounds in almost all waters. Part of the 
species make no stony secretions, but much the larger part 



Mi Dime Question Books. 

rWm calcareous or siliceous shells. The former (rhieopods), 
abound in the shallower waters along the borders of the 
bcean, and also over its bottom where it is thousands of 
feet deep. There are also among plants, the microscopic 
coccoliths covering the ocean's bed. 

40. What are the siliceous species ? 

Ans.— Either Diatoms or Poly cystines which occur both 
in shallow and deep waters, like the Rhizopods. The rock 
made of rhizopod shells is exemplified in chalk,— a soft, 
white or whitish limestone. That consisting of diatoms 
often looks like a very fine whitish earth; but it is some- 
times compacted into a nearly solid mass, and sometimes 
into an imperfect slate. Flint is made mainly of diatoms 
and of the spicules of sponges. 

4:1. Describe a coral-reef. 

Ans. — The fragments and sand made by the waves, and 
by the same means strewed over the bottom, along with 
the shells also of Mollusks, commence the formation of a 
bed of coral-rock, literally a bed of limestone, for the coral 
and shells have the composition of limestone, and consoli- 
dation goes on simultaneously. As the corals continue 
growing over the bed, fragments and sand are constantly 
forming, and the bed of limestone thus increases in thick- 
ness. In this manner it goes on increasing until it reaches 
the level of low tide; beyond this it rises but little, because 
corals cannot grow where they are liable to be left for a 
day wholly out of water; and the waves have too 
great force at this level to allow of their holding their 
places, if they were able to stand the hot and drying sun. 
The bed of calcareous rock thus produced is a caral-reef. 
Note.— Dunes are regions of loose drift-sand near the sea, In 






Geology and Mineralogy. 313 

Norfolk, England, between Hunstanton and Weybourne, the drift- 
sands have traveled inland with great destructive effects, burying 
farms and houses. 

Quet^y.— What are sand-scratches ? Define erosion. What is 
meant by an "abrading action ?" What occasions a cation ? How 
are deltas formed ? What is the meaning of Lithology ? 

42. Name the divisions of structural geology. 

Ans. — Lithology and petrology; corresponding to histol- 
ogy and anatomy. The former is an in-door employment; 
the latter an out door science. 

43. What is the difference between flint and 
chert ? 

Ans.— During the course of geological time, beds of 
tripolits are gradually consolidated, chiefly by percolating 
waters, which are constantly dissolving and re-depositing 
the silica; and, finally, in the place of a soft, earthy rock, 
we get a hard, flinty one, which we call flint if it occurs in 
the newer, or chert if it occurs in the older, geological for- 
mations. 

Note.— As illustrative of the force of running water it is stated 
that tbe Niagara River has cut a channel through the solid rocks, 
200 feet deep, 1,200 to 2,000 feet wide, and 7 miles long, The evi- 
dence is conclusive that the Falls were formerly at Queenstown, 
seven miles below their present situation. Still the Falls have not 
receded more than one foot a year for the last half century. H 
this has been the rate of retrocession for the whole distance,— and 
on account of the nature of the rocks there is no reason for suppos- 
ing it greater,— it has required 36,000 years for that great excava- 
tion. 

44. What are "Pot-holes?" 

Ans. — Deep wells which are everywhere common along 
rapid brooks and rivers. The celebrated "Basin" at Fran- 



814 Dime Question Books. 

conla Notch is one of these wells, 40 feet in diameter, and 
28 feet deep. It is filled to the depth of 8 or 10 feet with 
pure water, which revolves with such force that it is con- 
sidered a dangerous place for even an expert swimmer. 
No one can doubt for a moment that the entire basin has 
been made by the same process which is now going on 
there. How long the waters of the Pemigewasset have 
been revolving in this basin we may never know, but un- 
doubtedly for ages. 

45. What is said about the sediment of the 
Amazon ? 

Ans. — It is so charged with sediment that its waters can 
be detected, by their discoloration, 300 miles from its 
mouth. A part of the sediment brought down by this 
river is carried by the current of that region, and deposited 
on the coast of Guiana, which is thereby advancing upon 
the sea. 

Query.— Why is Egypt called the Gift of the M!e ? Where 19 
museovite to be obtained ? What is petrosilex ? Define ferrugi- 
nous sandstone. "What is prase ? What is the meaning of Crystal- 
lography ? What is the sp. gr. of graphite ? 

46. What are the three forms of frozen water? 

Ans.™ The ice of lakes and rivers; Glaciers; Icebergs. 
Glaciers are vast masses of ice, of a peculiar structure, en- 
cased in high mountain valleys. They are, in fact, the 
transformed snow which falls upon the mountains above 
the snow line. This snow is gradually transformed intc 
the glacier just as the snow upon the roof is transformed 
into icicles, 

41. What are lateral moraines f 






Geology and Mineralogy. 315 

Ans. — An accumulation of loose material all along the 
glacier on both sides. By this we understand the geolog- 
ical changes which glaciers produce, for encased as they 
are in the mountain valleys, they receive the rocks and 
earth that are detached by the frosts from the steep flanks 
and peaks of the adjacent mountains. 

Note.— Besides the blocks thus carried down on the top of the 
glacier, many fall through fissures in the ice to the bottom, where 
some of them become firmly frozen into the mass, and are pushed 
along the base of the glacier, abrading, polishing and grooving 
the rocky floor below, as a diamond cuts glass, or as emery-pow- 
der polishes steel. 

48. Define " roche moutonnee." 

Ans.-— Projecting eminences of rock so called have been 
smoothed and worn into the shape of flattened domes by 
the glacier as it passed over them. They have been traced 
in the Alps to great heights above the present glaciers, and 
to great horizontal distances beyond them. 

49. What are " erratics " ? 

Ans. — Angular blocks of granite, gneiss, and other 
crystalline formations found on the Jura and in the great 
valley of' Switzerland. They must have been brought 
over a distance of fifty miles, and their great size and an- 
guiarity, after a distance of so many leagues, has justly 
excited wonder; for hundreds of them are as large as cot- 
tages, One in particular, composed of gneiss, celebrated 
under the name of Pierre a" Bot, rests on the side of a hill 
about 900 feet above the lake of Neufchatel, and is no less 
than 40 feet in diameter. 

Note.— In the vicinity of Upsu'a., in Sweden, Is a ridge .ol 
stratified sand and gravel, in the midst cf which occurs a layer o\ 
marl, evidently formed originally at the bottom of the Baltic, by 



316 Dime Question Books. 

the slow growth of the mussel, cockle, and other marine shells Of 
living species, intermixed with some proper to fresh water. 

50. What is the weight of an iceberg ? 

Ans.— As ice floats with eight-ninths of its bulk below 
the surface, the true thickness of the berg is nine times its 
height above the surface of the water. 

51. Name the igneous agencies. 

A NS- — Volcanoes, Earthquakes, and Thermal Springs. 
There are 672 volcanoes, of which 270 are active. 

Note.— At the birth of Christ, Vesuvius was described by 
the Roman geographer, Strabo, as a burnt mountain, but it had 
never been known to show any activity. Its crater, nearly f ull, 
was covered with a dense forest, and its slopes adorned with cul- 
tivated fields, villages and cities. In the year 63, several shocks of 
earthquake startled the inhabitants of its delightful slopes, and 
sixteen years later, in 79 A. D., the first eruption oecured, after 
which the northern half of the mountain alone remained. The 
southern half was ground to powder, and the rain of hot, wet 
ashes was so abundant as to lay waste the fair fields upon its 
flanks, and to overwhelm and bury from human view, Herculane- 
um, Pompeii, and Stabiae. 

52. What are intimately connected with vol- 
canic phenomena ? 

Ans. — Thermal springs which occur in almost every 
country, and remote from volcanoes as well as near them. 
They are to be found in Virginia, West Virginia, Arkan- 
sas, the Utah Basin, Montana, and in others parts of North 
America. 

53. How are earthquakes produced ? 

Ans,— -They are undoubtedly caused by the action of the 



Geology and Mineralogy. 31 T 

heated interior of the globe upon its crust or outside part; 
but precisely how tbis molten matter operates to produce 
the earthquake is not fully understood. Tidal waves are 
also regarded as a cause. 

54. What is meant by vertical movements ? 

Ans.— Illustrated in the case of Sweden; for, while the 
northern portion is gradually rising, the southern section is 
slowly siaking below the water level. The western shores 
of the Chesapeake are gradually rising. The west coast of 
Greenland is gradually sinking. 

Note.— Since the Christian era, parts of the coast of Italy, in 
the region of Naples, have undergone vertical movements, amount- 
ing to 20 or 30 feet in each direction. The record of these changes 
is left not only on the coast itself, hut also on the columns of the 
temple of Jupitor Serapis, at Pozzuoli. 

Query.— Of what noted earl h quakes have you read ? What are 
Geysers ? Where are the volcanoes of Jorullo, Skapter Jokul, 
Etna, and MaunaLoa ? What is "Pele's hair?" Define volcano. 
What are organic agencies ? What is an Atoll ? At what height 
above the level of the sea does a glacier melt ? Ans. 3,500 feet. 
How is man producing geological changes ? Of what are reef 
corals composed ? 

55. What are Fossils? 

Ans. — The remains of plants and animals found im- 
bedded in many of the stratified rocks of every country. 
They are among the most important aids in making out a 
history of our earth. The department of Geology which 
treats specially of fossils, is called Paleontology. 

Note.— These remains were known to the ancients, and con- 
sidered "freaks of Nature." Tradition, which attributed to Achil- 
les and other heroes of the Trojan war a height of twenty feet, is 
traceable, no doubt, to the discovery of elephants' bones near their 
tombs. Thus, for example, we are assured that, in the time of • 



318 Dime Question Books, 

Pericles, in the tomb of Ajax was found a knee-bone of tbat hero 
which was as large as a dinner plate. It was, probably, the fossil 
knee-bone of an elephant. The Spartans prostrated themselves 
before the remains of one of these animals, in which they thought 
they recognized the skeleton of Orestes. Some bones of a mam- 
moth found in Sicily were considered as having belonged to Poly- 
phemus. Even the learned of a later day were not exempt from 
these blunders. Felix Plater, Professor of Anatomy at Basle, in 
1517, referred the bones of an elephant discovered at the roots of a 
tree torn up by the wind near Lucerne, to a giant at least nineteen 
feet high. He even restored it in a sketch which was long pre- 
served in the college at Lucerne. 

56. What fossils have been found in coal ? 

Ans. — Articulate animals of the genus Scorpion were 
found by Count Sternberg in 1835 in the coal-measures of 
Bohemia. From the coal of Wetting, in Westphalia, 
several specimens of the cockroach or Blatta family, and 
the wing of a cricket (Acridites), have been, described by 
Uermar. Prof. Goldenberg published, in 1854, descrip- 
tions of no less than twelve species of insects from the 
nodular clay-ironstone of Saarbriick, near Treves. Among 
them are several Blattincs, three species of Neuroptera, one 
beetle of the Scardbaeus family, a grasshopper or locust, 
Gryllacris, and several white ants or Termites. 

57. Dendrite is what ? 

Ans. — Delicate expansions of mineral matter, closely 
resembling plants, which are often found on breaking open 
all kinds of rocks, stratified as well as unstratified. These 
imitations of vegetable forms result from the infiltration ef 
mineral matter into minute fissures, and must not be con- 
founded with organic remains. 

68. "What do the fossils teach us ? 

Am —That all rock3 in which they occur were once in 



GtEOLOGY AND MlNERALOGY. 319 

a soft state, like the sand and mud at the bottom of our 
present waters, and, occuring in successive layers, they 
show that each layer once constituted the upper surface, 
no matter to what depth it may now be below it. They 
show that the highest mountains have once been the 
ocean's bottom, and that, too, for a long time, since their 
sides are filled with corals, crinoids, shells, and other or- 
ganisms, that could have grown only in the sea, 

59. In respect to fossils how are the rocks 
divided ? 

Ans.— Into Possiliferous, and Non-Possiliferous, The 
first comprises all the rocks that contain fossils; that is, all 
the stratified rocks, except gneiss, mica slate, hornblende, 
etc. The second, all the unstratified rocks, and such of 
the stratified as were formed before life was introduced 
upon our planet 

60. Define Petrifaction. 

Ans.— It consists in the infiltration of stony matter into 
the pores of vegetable or animal substances. 

61. Name the four great eras. 

Ans.— The Eozoic (dawn of life), the Paleozoic (ancient 
life), the Mesozoic (middle life), and the Cenozoic (recent 
life). These names indicate the successive stages in the 
development of life on the globe. 

NoTE.-The Eozoic era was, until lately, universally known as 
the Azmc (without life). There was doubtless such a period when 
the heated earth, swept by a blowing ocean, was destitute of in- 
habitants. Kecent discoveries, however, seem to indicate that 
the lowest of the so-called Azoic rocks which have actually been 
observed exhibit proof of the existence of life, and the name 
Eozoic has therefore been substituted. Dana does not accept this 



320 Dime Question Books. 

conclusion, and in his manual of Geology (pp. 149-157) uses the 
term Archaean (from the Greek for beginning.) There is no doubt 
that the Eozoic was preceded by an Azoic era, but it yet remains 
for the rocks of either period to be fully identified. 

62. What are some of the periods ? 

Ans. — Steele's classification is Laurenthian, Huronian, 
etc. ; Dana's, Primordial, Canadian, and Trenton, (Lower 
Silurian)-, Niagara and Salina, (Upper Silurian)-, Upper 
Helderberg, Hamilton, Chemung, and Catskill (Devonian). 

63. What kinds of rocks belong to the 

Eozoic ? 

Ans. — The crystalline or metamorphic, as granite, 
gneiss, marble, quartzite, limestone, etc. Beds of graphite, 
porphyry, soapstone and slates, also occur. All were 
doubtless deposited as sedimentary strata, and afterward 
crystallized. The Eozoic was emphatically the era of 
iron. The iron ore beds of the Adirondack^ in northern 
New York, the Iron mountains of Missouri, the Marquette 
mines of Lake Superior, and many others, date from this 
time. 

Query—What are incrustrations ? How is the gradual eleva- 
tion of Norway and Sweden proved ? What are the teachings of 
the igneous rocks ? Define a Synclinorium. Ans: A finished 
mountain range. What are Plutonic rocks ? 

64. What are the oldest mountains upon the 

Western Continent ? 

Ans. — A range of hills called the Laurentian located 
between New York and Canada. 

65. Name the divisions of Paleozoic TJme. 
Ans. 1. The Silurian Age, or Age of Invertebrates. 



Geology and Mineralogy. 321 

The Devonian Age, or Age of Fishes. 3. The Carbonif- 
erous Age, or Age of Coal Plants. 

Note.— Sir Eoderick Murchison first proposed the name of 
Silurian when he had studied and classified them in that part of 
Wales and some of the contiguous counties of Engiand which once 
constituted the kingdom of the Silures, a tribe of ancient Britons. 

66. What is Lingula sandstone f 

Ans. — The older sandstone abounds ia many places in a 
shell smaller, in general, than a finger-nail, related to the 
modern Lingula. It is the shell of a mollusk of the tribe 
of Brachiopods. When alive, it stood on a stem. These 
shells are so characteristic of the beds in many regions as 
to have suggested the name Lingula flags, or Lingula sand- 
stone. 

67. From what is the Potsdam period named? 

Ans. — From Potsdam, a town in northern New York, 
where the rock is exposed in the quarries to a thickness of 
70 feet. The formation is well developed in Pennsylvania 
and can be traced westward to the Black Hills of Dakota, 
and southward along the Appalachian range from Vermont 
to Alabama and is known in Texas. 

68. What is the kind of rock ? 

Ans, — It varies much throughout this wide extent, At 
Potsdam it is a coarse, hard sandstone; at Malone. a fria- 
ble one; as Keeseville, a quartzite; and at other localities, 
a fine white sand, fit for glass -making. 

69. What is an example of an "Inverted Vol- 
cano ?" 

Am —The Sculptured Rocks of Lake Superior, The 



822 Dime Questioh Books. 

strata of the Pillared Rocks form a wall 50 to 100 feet high, 
and line the shore for a distance of five miles. Their 
marked hues and fantastic shapes excite the imagination of 
every beholder. Here is "Miner's Castle," with its turrets 
and bastions; there "Sail Rock," a ship with sails full 
spread; and yonder "The Amphitheatre, "with itssymmet* 
rical curves. A closer inspection only reveals more curi- 
ous details and resemblances. 

70. What are the fossils of the Hudson 

Period ? 

Ans.— In the limestone regions, corals, shells, trilobites, 
etc., are abundant. In the shales, however, they are 
sparingly distributed, being mostly those which flourish in 
mudcly waters. The graptolites (rock writing) of the king- 
dom of Radiates are striking fossils. They are merely a 
delicate, plume-like tracery upon the rock. They have 
therefore been poetically styled sea/pens. They delighted 
in foul , as the corals in clear water, and must have thickly 
covered the muddy bottom of the shallow sea with their 
fragile, mossy branches. They are ^commonly found in 
scattered fragments. 

Query.— What is the Oneida Conglomerate f the Shawangunk 
grit f When was the Cincinnati period ? What is a trilobite ? 
Describe the fucoids. What is the "dye-stone ?" 

71. What is the spirifer arenosus f 

Ans.— A brachiopod which is the most common fossil 
of the Oriskany Period. The rock, a light, rough sand- 
stone, is often almost entirely made of these characteristic 
shells or of their casts. 

Note.— The fossils, constituting a kind of life-thermometer 
indicate that the climate of the Silurian was uniform. 



GrEOLOOY AND MlNERALOGY. 323 

72. How did the Devonian Age derive its 

name ? 

Ans.— It was so named by Sedgwick and Murchison, 
from Devonshire, England, where it occurs. It is often 
styled the Old Red Sandstone, from the prevalent color of 
the rock, and has been immortalized by Hugh Miller under 
that name. On this continent its color and character are 
very different, although it is similar in its dominant fossils. 

Note.— By far the greater number of the Old Red Sandstone 
fishes belong to a sub-order of Ganoids instituted by Huxley in 
1881, and for which he has proposed the name of CrossopUrygidae, 
abridged from Kpo66oDToS (fringe), and 7trapvc "(a fin) : i. e. f 
crossotos and pteryx, or the fringe-finned, in consideration of the 
peculiar manner in which the fin-rays of the paired fins are ar- 
ranged so as to form a fringe around a central lobe, as in the Poty- 
pterus, a genus of which there are several species now inhabiting 
the Nile and other African rivers. 

73. What was the origin of Old Red Sand- 
stone \ 

Ans. — Many circumstances that favor the theory of its 
fresh-water origin are confirmed by finding it in Lake 
Superior and the inland Canadian seas of fresh water, and 
in the Mississippi and African rivers are those fish which 
have the nearest affinity to the fossil forms of this ancient 
formation. 

74. What did the early fishes prophesy % 

Ans. — Not only the reptiles which were to come, but 
also the birds and even mammals. Though the ancient 
types have become obsolete, and have been replaced by 
modern ones, as Agassiz happily remarks, a few old-fash- 
ioned individuals have been left behind to give the key to 
the history of the race. 



324 Dime Question Books. 

Query.— What does the gar-pike explain ? the nautilus ? Lo- 
cate Oriskany Falls. What is meant by the Corniferous Period ? 

76. What are the Cyprinodons ? 

Ans. — The sightless fish who grope in the absolute 
darkness of the waters of the Mammoth Cave ; they are of 
a milk-white color. 

76. How was the Carboniferous Period inau- 
gurated ? 

Ans. — By the formation of a conglomerate sandstone 
the Millstone Grit whose ledges often separate into huge 
blocks. Where a portion has been swept away during 
subsequent geologic changes, the remains present a strik- 
ing resemblance to the streets and blocks of a ruined city. 
Several of these so-called "Rock cities" are situated in 
southwestern New York. 

Note.— In the district called the Joggins, in Nova Scotia, the 
coal formation is 14,000 feet thick, and contains seventy-six beds 
or seams of coal; only part of these, however, are of workable 
thickness. The "mammoth vein" exposed to view at Wilkes- 
harre, and worked at Carbondale, Manch Chunk, Shamokin, etc., 
is 29 J4 feet thick. The Pittsburg seam is 8 feet thick, and may be 
traced for a long distance as a conspicuous black band along the 
high banks of the Monongahela. 

77. Describe the two kinds of mineral coal. 
Ans.— Anthracite is mostly without bitumen, very hard, 

with a high lustre, often iridescent, and burns with a 
pale blue flame. Bituminous coal abounds with bitumen, 
is softer than anthracite, with little lustre, and burns with 
a bright flame. It appears in many varieties, one ol 
which is the well-known cannel coal. 

78. What is said of ferns ? 



Geology and Mineralogy. 325 

Ans.— Ferns which to-day creep at our feet, then 
towered into stately trees, with trunks a foot and a half in 
diameter. They are abundant fossils, and doubtless con- 
tributed most to the formation of coal, 

79. Of what origin are coal-beds ? 

Ans.— Vegetable origin. This might be inferred from 
the fact that coal is mainly Carbon, which substance forms 
one-fourth to one half of all the vegetation on the globe. 
But, prepared in very thin slices, coal shows its vegetable 
structure under the microscope, and often even to the 
naked eye. 

80. How did this vegetation accumulate? 
Ans.— By the slow growth of plants, just as peat is now 

forming in peat-bogs. Our peat-bogs are only incipient 
coal-beds, and need only to be submerged, and covered 
with great depths of strata, in order to become genuine 
coal. 

Note.— In a coal mine near the Bay of Fundy, in the stumps of 
two sigillarice, there have been found the remains of several small 
reptiles bearing frog-like and lizard-like forms, a centipede, and 
the shells of a land snail. These little creatures had probably 
crept into the hollow trees for shelter, and were overtaken by the 
convulsions which overwhelmed them. Several true reptiles have 
since been identified. 

Query.— What is a " petrified butterfly " ? What are the char- 
acteristic fossils of the carboniferous era? Where are the Hel- 
derberg Mts.? Give a scenic description of the Silurian Age. 

81. What are the divisions of Mesozoic Time? 

Ans.— The Reptilian Age includes three periods: 1. 
Triassic: named from the Latin tiia, three, in allusion to 
the fact that the rocks of the period in Germany consist of 



826 Dims Question Books. 

three separate groups of strata. This is a local sub-di- 
vision, however. This period is sometimes termed the 
New Red Sandstone, to distinguish it from the Old Red 
Sandstone of the Devonian. 2. Jurassic: named from the 
Jura Mountains, situated on the eastern border of France, 
between France and Switzerland, where rocks of the 
period occur. 3. Cretaceous : named from the Latin creta, 
chalk, the chalk-beds of Britain and Europe being included 
in the Cretaceous formation. 

Note.— The American rocks of the Triassic period have not 
yet been separated from those of the Jurassic, except in the 
region west of the Mississippi. The popular "free-stone" of 
Portland, Conn., and Newark, N. J., is a Triassic rock. Near 
Eichmontl, Va., and Deep River, N. 0., are valuable coal beds in 
the rocks of this era. At the west this formation consists of beds 
of brick-red marl and sandstone. The celebrated Solenhofen 
imestone, so much used in lithography, is out of the Jurassic 
Period. 

82. What animal had the general contour of a 
dolphin, the snout of a porpoise, the head of a 
lizard, the jaws and teeth of a crocodile, the 
vertebrae of a fish, the sternal arch of the water- 
mole, the paddles of a whale, and the trunk and 
tail of a quadruped ? 

Am—The lehthyosaur (fish-lizard). 

83. What are the gold-bearing rocks of Cali- 
fornia ? 

Ans.— Mainly Jurassic or Triassic metamorphic sand- 
stones with interstratified quartz containing gold. Where 
the quartz veins have come to the surface and weathered, 
the particles of gold have been washed out, and thus form- 
ed auriferous sands. 



Geology and Mineralogy. 327 

84. Cenozoic Time covers what two ages ? 

Ans.— -The Tertiary Age, or Age of Mammals; The 
Quaternary, or Age of Man. Steele makes but one divis- 
ion, including the two periods Tertiary and Post Tertiary. 

Note.— Lyell makes the divisions of the Tertiary Period to be 
Eocene (from the Greek $06$, dami, and KaivoS, recent) : species 
nearly all extinct. Miocene (from Melaov, less, &n&Kaivo'S): 
less than half the species living. Pliocene (from nXei gov more, 
and KalvoS) : more than half the species living. On this continent, 
however, these terms do not apply, and an American classification 
has been adopted, known as the LiguHic, Alabama, Yorktown (Va.) 
and Sumter (S. C.) Epochs. 

85. What is said of the rocks of this era ? 

AN8,— The Tertiary rocks are generally but little consoli- 
dated; they consist mostly of compacted sand, pebbles, 
clay, earth that was once the mud of the sea-bottom or of 
estuaries, mixed often with shells, or are such kinds of de- 
posits as now form along sea-shores and in shallow bays 
and estuaries, or in shallow waters off a coast. There are 
also limestones made of shells and others of corals, resem- 
bling the reef- rock of coral seas, 

86. What is said of the plants ? 

Ans.— The abundance of vegetable remains proves the 
land to have been covered with an exuberant flora. Leaves 
of oak, maple, poplar, hickory, cinnamon, fig, palm and 
pine are abundant. 

Query.— When did the seasons commence? What animal Is a 
Curious intermediate link between birds and reptiles? When did 
the region of gigantic reptiles terminate? What were Dinosaurs? 
Describe the Piesiosaur. What frog-like quadruped often at- 
tained the size of au ex? 



828 Dime Question Books. 

87. What are the three epochs of the Post- 
Tertiary ? 

Ans. — Glacial (Drift or Boulder P<emd),Champlain, and 
Terrace. The last treats of the elevation of the continent, 
its oscillations, and the existence of sea beaches far above 
(1,200 feet) the ocean level. 

Note.— The highest mountains of every country are the newest 
or last elevated. The Alps are younger than the mountains of 
Scandinavia; the Rocky mountains younger than the Alleglianies, 
and the latter younger than the White Mountains of New Hamp- 
shire. 

88. What is the Ohio Elephant? 

Ans. — The Mastodon, which has a general resemblance 
to the modern elephant. A single tooth, however, is suf- 
ficient to distinguish its remains. The grinding surface of 
a mastodon's tooth is covered with conical projections— 

whence the name of the animal — while that of the elephant 
is flat. 

89. What was the Dinotherium ? 

Ans. — A gigantic mammal whose remains occur in 
Bavaria, Austria, and France. This animal was about 18 
feet in length, and particularly remarkable on account of 
two tusks which turned downwards, enabling it to tear up 
the roots of aquatic plants. It probably lived about the 
water, like the hippopotamus of the present time. 

90. What are the epochs of the Stone Age ? 

Ans. — 1. That of extinct animals such as the mammoth 
and cave-bear. 2. Migrated existing animals (Reindeer), 
8. The Polished Stone. To the Metal Age belong the 
Bronze Epoch and the Iron Epoch. These are the classic 



Geolo&t and Mineealogy. 329 

fications, according to the fossil remains, of the life of the 
prehistoric man. 

91. How would you teach a class the elements 
of Geology and Mineralogy ? 

Ans.— Illustrated by Class-Drill : T.=teacher, P.=pupil. 

P. What is feldspar? 

T. Minerals which break naturally into forms, shaped 
like a bar of soap, and having smooth faces, are frequently 
called spars, and feldspar, from its yellow color and shape, 
at a little distance, might be taken for a bar of common 
yellow soap. Does any one know where it is obtained? 

P. From the quarries in Topsham, Maine. 

T. Yes; and what is a quarry? 

P. A place where men get out stone by drilling and 
blasting. 

T. That is correct. Now feldspar is common almost 
everywhere and for that reason is called the spar of a feld, 
or field. Thus we derived the name feldspar. 

P. Does it ever come as large as a bar of soap? All 
that I've seen has been in little pieces in granite. 

T. From some quarries pieces of feldspar are blasted 
from the ledge as large as a barrel, and the ledge at Tops- 
ham, (itself of pure feldspar), is as large, at least, as a 
block of a dozen houses. 

P. Is feldspar always red in color? 

T. No. Sometimes it is yellow and frequently it is of a 
fine green color, and then it is called Amazon-stone. 

Continued ad libitum. 



Puzzlers. 



"What is Zaffre ? Smalt ? Describe "german silver," and 
"mosaic gold." What metal is the only liquid in all ordi- 



330 Dime Question Books. 

nary temperatures ? What are "faults," and what do they 
retard ¥ Are you familiar with the writings of DeSaus- 
sure, Venetz, Charpentier, Agassiz, and Guyot ? Where 
is the "Devil's Pulpit ?" From what is glass made ? What 
is staurotide ? Agate is a variety of what ? What is the com- 
mon name of mica ? Ans. Isinglass. Upon what kind of 
rocks are the Scottish fortresses built ? Where is the Gla- 
cier of Zermath ? What is the meaning of the term Amy- 
gdaloid ? Can you give the true outlines of the oceanic de- 
pression ? What is the geological formation of Mt. Tom 
and Mt. Holyoke ? Where is Titan's Pier ? Where are 
"brown-stone fronts" quarried? What are cuttle-fish 
bones ? Describe coprolites. When was the Ichthyosaur 
discovered ? What are Oriskany beds ? Of what does 
the Lower Helderberg group consist ? Where is the for- 
mation ©f the Hudson Period to be seen ? Give an account 
of Dr. Hawkins's dinner party. What is cephalization ? 
How does the geological record of the Eozoic age agree 
with the Mosaic account ? What are mesas ? Where is 
the "Valley of Death ?" What is the meaning of rMzopod? 
Ans. "Root-footed." What is the medial Moraine ? De- 
scribe the Ammonite. What is meant by "hydraulic 
lime ?" What is chrywbwyl f Wavellite f 




PHYSICS 



PHY8I 



1. Define Natural Philosophy aad Chemistry. 

Am —Natural Philosophy, or Physics, has for its 
objects the investigation of the properties of all natural 
bodies, and of their mutual action on each other, It is the 
science of causes and principles. 

Chemistry is that department of science whose object is 
to ascertain the proportions in which the elements of mat- 
ter combine, and the modes of separating them when 
united ; and to inquire into the laws which effect, and into 
the powers which preside over their union. The former 
treats of phenomena in which there is a physical change 
in matter; the latter studies the causes and effects of 
chemical change. 

Query.— How are natural laws discovered? What is Science? 

2. Explain the difference between a physical 
and a chemical change. 

'■ ! Ans. —The first may occur without the loss of those spe- 
cific properties by which ^we recognize matter; and the 
second can not occur without the loss of such peculiarities. 
The first does not destroy the molecule; the second forms 
new molecules. 

Example.— The power of gunpowder to explode is a 
chemical property; the tendency of iron to unite with the 
osygen of the air, forming a rust, is a chemical change. 



336 Dime Question Books. 

Query.— Is the burning of a feather a physical or a chemlca 
change? The union of copper and zinc to form brass? The dis- 
solving of sugar? The freezing of water? The formation of steam? 
The making of bread? 

3. What is matter? 

Aits.— Whatever occupies space and prevents oilier 
things from occupying the same space. 

Note.— A distinct portion of matter is termed a body. A par- 
ticular kind is called a substance. 

Query.— Is a shadow, gold, or air, matter? What change is 
matter constantly undergoing? 

4. Classify the substances. 

Ans.— Elementary substances, or elements ( 63 in num- 
ber), are those which contain only a single kind of matter. 
The union of two or more elements forms a compound 
substance. 

5. What are the three conditions of matter? 

Ans. — Solids, liquids, and gases. 

Query.— Which are the most compressible, solids or liquids? 
liquids or gases? 

6. How do we know that solid matter con- 
tains pores % 

Ans.— Because many solids are permeable to liquids. 
(By a powerful pressure upon water it can be forced 
through a plate of gold.) Because all matter is compressi- 
ble, and because all matter is contracted by cold. 

Note.— Solids are bodies in which the force of molecular 
attraction is greater than that of repulsion. Liquids are bodies in 
which the forces of attraction and repulsion are equal to each 
other, and in Gases the force of repulsion is greater than that oi 






Physics. 337 

attraction. The molecules of matter are kept In their relative 
positions by the force of molecular attraction and repulsion. The 
ssaose of the former is unknown. The latter is caused by heat. 

Query.— What are fluids? What are aeriform bodies? 

7. What is the difference between mobile and 
viscid fluids? 

Azrs. — In some liquids the molecules move more freely 
over one another than in others. The first are called 
mobile, as alcohol; the second viscid, as tar. 

Query.— Is oil, molasses, ether, milk, mobile or viscid? 

8. What is vaporization ? 

Ans. — When by the action of heat, liquids become 
changed to gases or vapors. 

Note.— Water is a solid when reduced below the freezing 
point, and by the action of heat it becomes aeriform. Condensa- 
tion, the opposite of this, is when the vapor becomes a liquid 
again by loss of heat. 

Query.— What is liquefaction? Why is salt used in freezing 
Ice cream? On the contrary it is used in thawing out a pump. 

9. What is force ? 

Ans. — If a body were left wholly to itself it would either 
continue at rest, or it would move uniformly in a straight 
line. Any cause which changes or tends to change either 
of these conditions is a force. 

Query.— What are the various kinds of force? What is energy? 
What is meant by a force of 10 pounds? What is kinetic energy? 
What are Newton's Laws of Motion? From what does the first 
law result? 

10. What is necessary in order to ascertain the 
efiect produced by any force ? 



338 Dime Question Books. 

Ans.— Three things. The point of application, the 
direction and the velocity. 

11. Define Mass, Telocity, and Momentum. 

Ans. — Mass is an abbreviation for quantity of matter; 
velocity the distance through which a moving body passes 
in a given time ; momentum the quantity of motion it pos- 
sesses, which is equal to the mass multiplied by its veloc- 
ity. 

Ex. — A body weighing 4,000 lbs., traveling at the rate 
of 6 feet a second, its momentum is 24,000 lbs. Formula: 
4,000 (ms) x 6 («) = 24,000 {mom). 

Query.— What is the velocity of a snaJl? a man walking? a 
railway train? 

12. When a body moves through equal dis- 
tances in successive seconds its motion is said to 
be what ? 

Ans. — Uniform; the opposite of this is Varied. The 
last is of two kinds: uniformly accelerated and uniformly 
retarded. 

Query. —Wh&t is rectilinear, curvilinear and rotary motion? 
absolute and relative? 

13. Explain the difference between the com- 
mon and scientific use of the term phenomena. 

Ans,— As commonly used it means something unusual 
or strange; as used in science it meaaa anything which 
happens naturally. 

Ex.-- The falling of a rain drop. The budding of a leal 

Query. -What is cause and effect? 



Physios. 339 

14:. What do we mean by the properties of a 
body ? Name and define them, 

Ans.— Those peculiarities, or qualities, which enable us 
to recognize it. The properties are general or specific. Gen- 
eral properties are those which belong in common to all 
matter, as Magnitude (or Extension),' Impenetrability, 
Divisibility, Mobility, Expansibility, Contractibility, Inde- 
structibility, Porosity, and Inertia, or passiveness. Some 
authorities include Gravitation. Specific are those which 
belong only to certain substances; as Brittleness, Hard- 
ness, Elasticity, Malleability, Ductility, Tenacity and 
Crystalline form. 

For definitions, see Dictionary. 

Query. -What two serve to define matter? Which is the most 
malleable of metals? Is copper malleable? What three dimen- 
sions must matter have? 

NoTE.-Tenacity. There Is something very interesting, but 
not altogether as yet understood, in the behavior and strength of 
iron and steel when loaded. It is all very well to institute certain 
tests to find the number of lbs. it requires to break a piece having 
a sectional area of one square inch, and from this pronounce what 
is the strength of the iron; because, with our present knowledge 
and appliances it is all we can do, and a test of some kind is of 
course imperative. It is a curious fact, however, that the strength 
of a piece of iron or steel varies according to the manner in 
which the load is applied. If a metal receives its load suddenly, it 
wall break under a less weight than if the load comes on slowly 
and gradually increases; and the difference is not a minute one 
either, for it is as great as 20 per cent, under the two extremes of 
conditions. 

15. What is the difference between an atom 
and a molecule % 

.^ LNS '.~T TllS word atorn means that which cannot be cut, 
or indivisible. Practically there is no limit to the divisi- 
bility of matter, but philosophers hold that there is ia 
theory. 



340 Dime Question Books. 

The Atomic Theory, originated by Democritus, is that 
the smallest particle of matter we can see is composed of 
still smaller particles or molecules, each possessing the 
specific properties of the substance to which it belongs. A 
molecule (tiny mass) is a group of atoms held together by 
chemical force, and is the smallest particle of a substance 
which can exist by itself. 

Query.— What is a particle? Can atoms or molecules be 
obtained by artificial means? Ans. No. 

16. The resistance to motion is produced how ? 

Ans.— In the case of air and water it is a fluid resist- 
ance. In other bodies it is caused by friction, and this is 
produced by the irregularities of the surfaces in contact, 
and by the attraction which bodies have for each other. 
Query.— "What is friction? Name the classes. 

. 17. "What is equilibrium? 

Ans. — Rest. When two forces of equal intensity act in 
opposite directions, they will be in equilibrium and the 
body at rest. There are three forms: stable, unstable, and 
neutral, according as the point of support in a body is 
above, below or at the centre of gravity. 

Query.— When a person slips on one side what does he do and 
why? 

18. Describe the parallelogram of forces. 

Ans. —In short, the line (diagonal of a -parallelogram) 
representing the direction and intensity of the force pro- 
duced by the combined effect of the two components is the 
resultant. Mathematically a demonstration of the Pytha» 
gorean theorem. 



.Physics. 341 

Query.— What is Centrifugal and Centripetal force? Can a 
single force cause motion in a circle? The angle of incidence 
equals what? Demonstrate. " 

19. The mechanical powers are modifications 
of what ? 

Ans.— The lever and the inclined plane. The first 
includes both the wheel and axle, and the pulley. The 
second, the screw and the wedge. 

20. What is a lever of the first, second and 
third elass ? 

Ans. — First, when the fulcrum is between the power 
and the weight; second, when the weight is between the 
power and the fulcrum; third, when the power is between 
the fulcrum and the weight. 

Query.— In which of these three classes is a pair of scissors, 
sugar-tongs, a wheelbarrow, a balance, a door opened by the hand 
applied to the knob, and a crow-bar in moving a stump while 
resting upon a stone? Why is perpetual motion impracticable? 

21. " J¥o energy is gained by a machine" 
Explain then how we can raise a weight of 
1000 lbs. by using a force of only 100 lbs. 

Ans.— Suppose a man can lift only 100 lbs., and by 
using the lever he can raise these 1000 lbs. ; but to raise 
these 1000 lbs. through one foot he would be required to 
continue exerting a force of 100 lbs. through ten feet, and 
this would clearly be the same as if he divided the 1000 
lbs. into ten separate parcels of 100 lbs. each, and for ten 
successive times exerted his strength of 100 lbs. through a 
single foot. 



342 Dime Question Books. 

22. How can the power of the screw be esti- 
mated ? 

Ans.— Any force acting to turn a screw will cause the 
screw to move with a force as much greater than its own 
as the circumference of the circle through which it moves 
is greater than the distance between any two contiguous 
threads. |This, like all general laws, is modified by fric- 
tion. 

Ex.— If the power act on a 'screw] through a circum- 
ference of 6 inches, and the distance between any two con- 
tiguous threads be £ of an inch, then one lb. applied at the 
head would advance the power of the screw 6 -*• |, or 30 
lbs. 

23. What is Sir Isaac Newton's Law of Uni- 
versal Gravitation ? Discovered in 1682. 

Ans. — Every particle of matter in the universe attracts 
every other particle of matter with a force that is directly 
proportional to the mass, and inversely proportional to the 
square of the distance. 

Query.— What simple event in 1666 led to this discovery? Ans. 
An apple falling from a tree. 

24. What is meant by saying one thing is in- 
versely proportional to another ? 

Ans.— That it increases or decreases in the same ratio 
that the other decreases or increases. 

25. The attractive force is inversely propor- 
tional to the square of the distance. Illustrate. 

Ans. — The centre of the earth is the centre of gravity. 
A body on the earth's surface is 4000 miles from the ccn« 



Physics. 343 

tre. If a lb. be carried four thousand miles above the 
earth's surface, it would weigh but a quarter of alb., since 
as its distance from the earth's centre is doubled, the earth's 
attraction for it is diminished one-fourth. 

Note.— 1000 miles below the earth's surface, a bod^ would gain 
M its weight. The fact is, however, the density of the earth 
Increases so much toward the centre that for " seven-tenths of the 
distance the force of gravity actually becomes stronger than on 
the surface." A body at the centre of the earth would have no 
weight, since the attraction would be the same in all directions. 
As tbe earth is bulged out at the equator, a body wben at the 
equator is farther from the earth's centre than when at the poles. 
The same body, therefore, would weigh more at the poles than at 
the equator; 194 lbs. at the equator would weigh 195 lbs. at the 
poles. A standard lb. is 22 grains lighter at the equator than in 
London. 

Query.— What would a lb. weigh 12,000 miles above the earth's 
surface? 

Solution,— The distance from centre of earth is 12,000 
-f 4,000 = 16,000 miles; then 16,000 a : 4,000 a : : 1 lb. : x 
= &lb. 

26. Who discovered the 5 laws of falling 
bodies. 

Ans.— Galileo, in 1590. 
query— What is the velocity of a falling body? Which will 
fall the faster, a lb. of iron or a lb. of cork? A ball projected 
vertically upward returns in 16 seconds to the place of projection ; 
How far did it ascend? 

27. The Pendulum, Define oscillation, and 
time and amplitude of oscillation. 

Ans.— Each complete swing is called an arc, or oscilla- 
tion. The line which marks the distance the pendulum 
has moved from a vertical position is called the amplitude 
of the oscillation. 



344 Dime Question Books. 

Query.— What are the 3 laws of vibration? How long is a pen- 
dulum that beats once a second? once in three seconds? Does a 
clock gain or lose time in winter? What are the forms of the 
compound pendulum? 

Note.— Galileo was the first to think of turning the pendu- 
lum to a practical use. Sitting in the cathedral at Pisa (1581) he 
noticed that the vibrations of an immense chandelier suspended 
from its lofty ceiling were isochronous. The sun-dial was 
undoubtedly the first device for keeping time, followed by the 
clepsydra, a vessel eontaiug water which slowly escaped into a 
dish below, in which was [a, float that by its height indicated the 
lapse of time ; or scales on the side of the vessel that showed the 
number of hours it took the liquid to reach them in its descent. 
Even Alfred the Great, to tell the passing hours, used wax candles 
12 inches long and of uniform thickness, 6 of which lasted a day. 
The hour-glass, a subsequent form of time-keeper, is at present 
an article of elegant novelty. 

28. How can we determine, by means of the 
pendulum, the variations of the intensity of 
gravity at different parts of the earth ? 

Ans. — The pendulum will oscillate more rapidly at the 
poles (13 vibrations more) than at the equator, because the 
force of gravity is greater there: that is, it is nearer the 
earth's centre. 

29. Why do not rain-drops strike with a force 
proportional to the laws of falling bodies ? 

Ans, — Because they are so small that the resistance of 
the air nearly destroys their velocity. But for this wise 
provision, a shower of them would be as fatal as one of 
minie -rifle bullets. 

30. What is the difference between cohesion 
and adhesion ? 



Physios. 345 

Ans. — Cohesion is that form of molecular attraction 
that holds together molecules of the same kind of matter; 
adhesion holds together different kinds, 

31. What is capillarity ? 

Ans. — The elevation or depression of liquids in tubes 
not exceeding ^ of an inch in diameter. 

The oil rising in the wick; the towel becoming wet 
with the lower part only dipped into water; blotting paper 
drinking up ink, are familiar examples of capillarity. 

Query.— Why should a liquid be elevated in a capillary tube 
when it wets the tube, or depressed when it does not? 

Note.— If a tube capable of raising water four inches be 
broken off at three, there will be no overflow, as might be 
expected, but it will be supplied as fast as evaporation takes 
place, 

32. What is Osmose— Endosmose and Exos- 
mose? 

Ans. — It is the unequal mixing of two liquids through 
a thin, porous substance or wall separating them. The 
cause is not fully understood. 

Note.— Endosmose and exosmose enter largely into the oper- 
ations of nature. They cause the ascent and descent of sap in 
trees and vines. 

33. Define hydrodynamics. 

Ans. — Dynamics means power, and treats of the use of 
force. 

Hydrodynamics treats of the conditions of rest and 
motion in fluid bodies. It includes Hydrostatics, which 
treats of liquids at rest; Hydraulics, which treats of liquids 
in motion, and Pneumatics, which treats of gases either at 
rest or in motion. 



346 Dime Question Books. 

Query.— What Is the hydrostatic press? The weight of a «ubio 
foot of water is 62.3 lbs. How much does a cubic inch weigh? 

34. What is the principle of Archimedes ? 

Ans. — Bodies, when immersed in a liquid, lose as much 
of their weight as the weight of the liquid they displace. 
230 B. C. 

Note.— The law of "hydrostatics is that water always finds its 
level. Engineers carry water across a river in pipes through the 
valley, or under the bed of a river, knowing that it will rise on the 
opposite side to its level. Artesian wells, so called from the 
province of Artois in France, where they were first introduced in 
Europe, though known to the Chinese for centuries, represent this 
principle. 

35. Define Specific Gravity, or relative 
weight. 

Ans.— The weight of a substance aompared with that 
of the same bulk of another substance. It is really the 
method of finding the density of a body. 

Rule. — The weight of a body in air divided by the 
■weight of ac equal volume of water. 

Distilled water, at a temperature of 60°, is taken as a 
standard for solids and liquids, and air for gases. A cubic 
inch of carbonic-acid gas weighs 1.52 times as much as 
the same volume of air; hence its specific gravity is 1.52. 

Query.— "Why do the oily particles of soup float on the top? 
Why does smoke rise? How do fish sink at pleasure? 

Note.— Maskelyne, in 1774, found the attraction of Mt. Schi- 
hallion to be 12'. By comparing this force with that of the earth, 
the specific gravity of the mountain being known, the specific 
gravity of the earth was estimated to be five times that of water. 
Later investigations make it 5.67. 

S6. What is ahead? 



Physics. 347 

Ans.— The vertical distance from the middle of the 
orifice to the surface of the liquid enclosed in a vessel. 
The amount of liquid which flows out of an orifice in a 
given time is called a flow. 

3"7. Give the rule for calcukting the velocity 
of escape of a liquid from an orifice. 

Ans, — It is equal to 8 times the square root of the head. 

Ex, — If an orifice was four feet below the surface of a 
liquid, then the velocity of escape would be 8 X y4= 8 X 
2 = 16 feet per second. 

38. How are waves produced % 

Ans. — By the friction of the wind against the surface 
of the water. 

39. What will give motion to water? 

Ans.— A fall of only 3 inches a mile is sufficient to give 
motion to water, and produce as many miles per hour. A 
fall of 3 feet per mile makes a mountain torrent, The 
Ganges descends but 800 feet in 1,800 miles, requiring a 
month to move down this inclined plane. 

40. What are the principal forms of water- 
wheels ? 

Ans. — The under-shot, the over-shot, the breast-wheel 
and the turbine. Define them. 

41. How was the pressure of the atmosphere 
discovered ? 

Ans.— It was the result of a celebrated experiment per- 
formed by Torricelli, about the middle of the 17th century. 



348 Dime Qoestion Boobs. 

Query.— What is the pressure (at the sea-level) of the air to 
the square inch? What is the depth of the atmosphere? Ans. 
From 50 to 600 miles. What causes the rise of water ki a vacuum? 

Note.— The Barometer, invented by Paseal; is used to indi- 
cate the weather, and to measure the height of mountains. The 
Air-Pump was invented by Otto Guericke, burgomaster of Mag- 
deburg, Germany. 

The density of the air rapidly diminishes as we ascend. At 
the height of 3% miles, it is but one -half that at the sea-level. At 
40 miles the atmosphere is as rare as in the vacuum of an air- 
pump. Among the Andes, the Indians are subject to a malady 
called veta, which is caused by the rarity of the air. 

42. Define Acoustics— the science of sounds. 

Ans. — Sound is produced by vibrations or wave like 
motions of elastic bodies, transmitted through the air by 
the ear to the brain. The usual velocity of sound in air at 
the temperature of freezing water is 1120 feet a second. A 
good ear can distinguish 9 or 10 distinct sounds a second, 
as separate sounds. Sounds travel with different veloci- 
ties in different media; e. g., about 4 to 4£- times as fast in 
water, and through iron from 10£ to 15 times as fast as in 
air, 

Query.— What acoustic properties has your school-room? A 
bombardment was heard 40 miles. How many seconds transpired 
before the report of a cannon was heard? In how many senses is 
the word sound used? 

43. What is resonance ? 

Ans — The reflection of sound-waves (by the same law 
as that of reflected motion — the angle of incidence equals 
the angle of reflection,) from the ceiling and walls of a 
room, or of any confined space. 

Note.— The human ear is limited to continuous or musical 
sounds produced between 16 and 38,000 vibrations a second. Be- 
tw«en 10 and 16 vibrations a second cause a confused hum or buzz 



Physics. 349 

below the lowest mwstoal note. In the same medinm high or low 
founds arew)r<Mnarily conducted with equal velocity. A funda- 
mental note is produced by a given number of vibrations, and its 
Octave Mgher by double that number of vibrations in a second. 

Query.— Is your voice sonorous? What is the minimum dis- 
tance from a reflecting surface at which an echo is possible? Bear 
sowing'.— An echo is a sound repeated by reflection. The ear can 
hear ten sounds a second. The velocity of sound is 1120 feet per 
second. Therefore 1120 -*- 10 = 112, the number of feet the sound 
must traverse. But it goes to the reflector and returns; therefore, 
112 -T- 2 = 56 feet, Ans. "Why is there no discord in a band or 
choir at a distance? How many octaves can the ear comprehend? 
What is a noise? What kind of vibrations produce music? At 
what distance can people in the Arctic region conversewith each 
other, and why? 

44. Why are sounds more distinct at night 
than by day ? 

Ans. — The air at night is more homogeneous; therefore 
sounds are heard more clearly and farther than in the day 
time. 

Query.— At what place will an echo return 17 syllables by day 
and 20 by night? 

45. How can two sounds produce silence ? 

If two sounds meet in exactly opposite phases, and the 
two forces are equal, they balance each other, and silence 
ensues. A sound added to a sound will produce silence. 
Likewise two motions may produce rest; two lights may 
cause darkness ; two heats may produce cold. 

Query.— What are the divisions of wind instruments? What 
is a Siren? 

46. Define heat — -the science of Pyronomics. 

Ans. — Heat is motion. The molecules of a body are 
in constant motion. 



350 Dime Question Books. 

When we increase the rapidity of this movement, we 
heat the body. When we decrease it, we cool the body. 

Query.— What is the caloric theory f What is sensible heat? 

47. Give the classes of heat % 

Ans.— Luminous heat is that which radiates from a 
luminous body (red-hot iron); and that »adiated from a 
non-luminous source is termed obscure heat. Luminous 
heat almost always contains in addition obscure heat, 
Veld is a relative term indicating the partial absence of 
heat. 

Latent heat is that which does not increase the temper- 
ature, and cannot, therefore, be detected by the thermo- 
meter. 

Query.— What latent heat does water in the form of ice gain at 
82° to become a liquid? Ans. 142°. Describe the Calorimeter. 
What is meant by the heat of liquefaction? 

Notb,— Gases and vapors differ but slightly. The first retain 
their form at the ordinary temperature and pressure; Ex., air. 
The second are readily condensed, and at the ordinary tempera- 
ture appear as solids or liquids; Ex., steam. 

48. What is the law of radiant heat ? 

Ans,— Radiant heat diminishes in intensity as the 
square of the distance from the radiating body increases. 

J2&.— A person standing within two feet of the fire 
receives four times as much heat as one standing four feet 
from it. 

Query.— -The planet Neptune is about thirty times as far from 
the sun as the earth is; how does its 60lar heat compare with 
ours? 

49. How is heat diffused from one bod/ to 
another ? 



Physios. 351 

Ans.— In three ways. It is distributed through solids 
by conduction; through liquids and gases by convection 
and radiation. Like light, heat may be reflected, refracted, 
and polarized. 

Query.— Which has the greatest conductivity, iron or copper ? 
What is the meaning of " polarized "t 

50. What is meant by absorption ? 

Ans.— When ether- waves strike against the surf ace of a 
oody, those which are not reflected pass into the body. If, 
in passing through the body, the waves give up their 
motion to the molecules, the body becomes hot, and the 
heat is absorbed. The reflection of heat is like the reflec- 
tion of sound. 

Note.— A good absorber is also a good radiator, but a good 
reflector can be neither. 

Query.— Which is snow ? Is white or black the better radiator? 

51. "What is diathermancy? 

Ans.— When the ether- waves pass through a body 
without giving motion to the molecules, that is, without 
heating it, the body is diathermanous, or transparent. 
When it will not let the heat pass through it, it is atherma- 
nous, or opaque to heat. 

Query.— Which is diathermanous, air or iron ? dry air or 
watery vapor? 

Note.— Heat is the great antagonist of cohesion. Force can 
not be destroyed, for if it is changed in one form, it re-appears in 
another without loss. 

52. Why does heat expand and cold contract? 
Ans,— By the addition of heat, the molecules are 

urged into swifter motion, and, therefore pushed further 
apart, increasing the size of the body. 



352 Dims Question Books. 

Note.— If heat be applied to a liquid, the temperature rises 
until the boiling point is reached, when it stops. The expansion, 
however, continues until the motion is so violent as to overcome 
the cohesive force and to throw off particles of the liquid. This is 
known as the theory of vaporization. Describe the theory of boil- 
ing. 

53. How is heat obtained ? 

Ans.— The sun is the principal source of heat. It is 
obtained by chemical and mechanical means. 

Query.— By which method do we derive heat from burning 
coal? 

54. What is sj^ecific heat ? 

Anb.— The relative amount of heat which a body re- 
ceives in reaching a given temperature. Taking water as 
a standard, the specific heat of iron is £ and of mercury 
only sV 

Query.— As it takes twice as long to raise water to a given 
temperature as it does oil, what is the specific heat of oil? 

55. Describe the Steam Engine. 

Ans. — The first idea of the steam engine was suggested 
by the Marquis of Worcester, in his '• Century of Inven- 
tions," in 1663, in describing an apparatus consisting of 
steam boilers, which worked alternately, and of pipes con< 
veying steam from them to a vessel in which its pressure 
operated to force water upward. Other experiments were 
made from time to time, until in 1705 Thomas Newcome, 
John Cawley, and Thomas Savery patented the first 
steam-engine really deserving the name. It consisted of a 
cylinder, containing a piston driven upward by steam 
from a separate boiler, and forced downward by atmos« 
pheric pressure, when the steam below the piston was re* 



Physios. 353 

moved by condensation. Th« engine was used only for 
pumping, the pump-rod and piston-rods being attached to 
opposite ends of a beam, as in ordinary engines Various 
improvements were made on this engine until 1763, when 
Jarnes "Watt, an instrument maker at the University of 
Glasgow, in repairing a model engine, began a series of 
improvements which finally rendered the steam-engine 
universally applicable. In 1773 he began building the new 
engine, adding other improvements from year to year. 
Among his inventions are the separate condenser, the 
double-acting principle, parallel motion, the regulating 
action of the governor, and many other improvements. 
The invention of the crank and fly-wheel is disputed be- 
tween ^Watt and Pickard. From that time to tire present, 
progress of invention has suggested many new features in 
the construction of the steam engine, in its various appli- 
cations to the needs of different branches of trade. 

Note.— Steam and some of its properties appear to have been 
known to the ancients centuries before the Christian era. Hero 
of Alexandria, who flourished about 200 years B. C, has left us a 
description of a steam-engine by which machinery could be set in 
motion. 

Query.— What are the two classes of engines? "What is meant 
by Horse-power? What is a Foot-pound? A steam-engine 
raises a ton weight 286 feet. How many heat units are thus ex- 
pended. 

56. What is a Governor ? 

Ans. — The Governor (an ingenious piece of mechan- 
ism) is an apparatus by which the throttle- valve in the 
Bteam-pipe is cpened and closed, and the supply of steam 
regulated as the machinery requires. "When a machine is 
going too fast, the bails fly out by centrifugal force and 
Bhi.c off a pofiicn cf the steam; when too slowly they fall 
"took, sag, cj.-tiiiu^ tin* valve, lei oi* the steam again, 



$54 Dime Question Books. 

reach a length often ten fold that of their host. At matur- 
ity they desert the insects at whose expense they have 
been nourished, and seek the water to lay their eggs and 
die. 

76. What are Mollnsks ? 

Ans.— Those animals which bave a soft body, envel- 
oped by a muscular skin called a mantle, and in most cases 
protected by a shell; they are not jointed nor radiated in 
their internal structure. The shells are the parts of these 
animals which we oftenest see; for when the animal is 
dead the soft parts soon disappear, and only the shell 
remains. Most kinds of mollusks increase by means of 
eggs: some kinds are viviparous, and some kinds of tuni- 
cate mollusks increase by budding. Their blood is white 
or colorless. 

77. What are the characteristics of the Ceph- 
alopoda ? 

Ans.— They have muscular tentacles or arms around 
the mouth; beaked, horny jaws; two large eyes; arms 
covered with sucking disks; and a bag of ink, with which 
most species blacken the water to hide from pursuit. To 
this class belong the "sailors"; the cuttle-fish, which has 
a spongy, calcareous- mass within its body, known as cut- 
tle-fish bone, and used for canary birds; the beautiful nau- 
tilus; and the famous devil-fish. 

78. What is said of the Muricidse (rock-shells)? 

Ans. — The Murex has the aperture of its shell pro- 
longed into a canal. The Shetlanders use this shell for a 
lamp, inserting the wick in the canal, and filling the body 
of the shell with oil. From these mollusks the ancients 



ZOOLOGY. 255 

Obtained the costly Syrian dye, the "purple " of Scripture. 

79. Why do shells give a murmuring noise 

when held to the ear ? 

Ans.— The usual explanation of the " roar of the sea " 
in shells is that the form of the shell and its polished sur- 
face collect and reflect sounds in the air, otherwise imper- 
ceptible. Another theory refers the murmur to the circu- 
lation of the blood through the capillaries of the fingers 
holding the shell by which vibrations are magnified. A 
feeble murmur can be heard, however, when the shell 
rests on a table, and it is probable that both causes are 
concerned in the phenomenon. 

80. What is the meaning of Echinoderms ? 

Ans. — Spiny-skinned. They are radiate animals which 
have a tough skin containing particles of carbonate of 
lime, or a shell composed of calcareous pieces, which are 
movable, or fixed together, and covered with tubercles or 
spines. This sub-kingdom is divided into the four classes 
of Holothurioidea {sea-cucumbers) Echinoidea (sea-urchins), 
Asteroidea (star-fishes) and Crinoidea (feather stars). 

81. What are the Coelenterates ? 

Ans.— Radiates having a distinct body cavity, whose 
walls consist of an outer layer (ectoderm) and an inner 
layer (endoderm). They are all aquatic, and multiply alike 
by budding, by eggs and by fission. They are usually 
armed with peculiar stinging filaments. There are the 
four classes of Ctenophora (comb bearers); Anthoza (ftower- 
like animals); Hydroza (water-dragon animals)— such as 
Jelly fishes and the Portuguese Man of -War; and Spongida 
{sponges). 



356 Djsib Question Books. 

accepted, or Undulatory theory is, that light is produced 
by the undulations of the exceedingly subtile, imponder- 
able medium known as ether, the luminiferous ether, 

62, Trace a ray of light through a prism, and 
show its course in obedience to the laws of 
refraction. 

Ans. — A ray of light falling on a prism (a solid piece of 
glass, having for its sides three plane surfaces, and for its 
ends two equal and parallel triangles,) must pass through 
two of its surfaces. If it strike both of them obliquely, 
it will be twice refracted; if it strike one surface perpen- 
dicularly and the other obliquely, it will be refracted but 
once. 

Query.— What are the laws of reflection and refraction? What 
is " rotary polarization "? 

63. Define Reflection, Refraction, Diffraction, 
Diffusion. « 

Arcs. — When light falls on the surface of a body, and 
is thrown off from it at equal and opposite angles to that 
at which it struck the surface, it is said to be reflected. 
When a ray of light passes from one medium to another of 
different density, it is refracted, or bent out of its course. 
Diffraction is caused by a beam of light passing along the 
edge of some opaque body. As the waves of ether strike 
against it, they put in motion another set of waves on the 
opposite side, which interfere with the first system. When 
the light which falls on the surface of a body is thrown oft 
from it in all directions, it is said to be diffused. 

Note.— The rainbow is formed by the reL-2.Cik.fi aii«2 rtHec* 
tioii of the sunbeam in drops o* falling -.vaier. 



Physics. 357 

Query.— What is chromatic and spherical aberration? "We 
measure the intensity of light by photometers; "what are they? 

64. What and where is the principal focus of 
a concave mirror ? 

Ans. —Parallel rays of light falling directly on a con- 
cave mirror collect, after reflection, at a point in front of 
the mirror called the principal focus, which is situated 
between the centre of the mirror and the centre of the 
sphere of which the mirror may be conceived to be a 
part. 

Note.— The three kinds of mirrors or specula are: plane, con- 
cave and convex. The general principle of them is that the image 
is always seen in the direction of the reflected ray as it enters the 
eye. 

Query.— What is a mirage, and what is the cause? What Is 
meant by concave and convex? 

(J5. What must be the size of a glass in order 
to reflect a full-length image of a person ? 

Ans. — It must be one-half the person's height. 

66. Whatldnd of glasses will remedy long and 
short sightedness, and why ? 

Ans. — In many eyes, the lenses converge the rays so 
much as to cause the image of distant objects to be formed 
in front of the retina. Such people are near-sighted, and 
the failing is remedied by the use of concave spectacles. In 
other eyes, the lenses cause the object to fall back of the 
retina. Such persons are long-sighted, and this is bene- 
fitted by the use of convex spectacles. The cause of near- 
sightedness is the too great converging power of the eye, 
while the cause of long sightedness is their their too feeble 
converging power. 



358 Dime Question Books. 

Query.— Give a physiological description of the eye. Why 
does a blow on the head make one " see stars "? What is an opti- 
cal instrument? Describe the opera-glass and camera-obscura. 
Who invented the telescope? 

67. What is the solar spectrum ? 

Ans.— The dispersion of the white rays of the sun by 
their passage through a prism into the seven primary 
colors. 

Notb.— Ficon/or, mnemonic word, 

68. What is electricity ? 

Ans. — A form of energy which manifests its presence 
in a variety of ways. These are generally arranged under 
two heads, viz., as a charge, and as a current. 

Query.— What is known as to the real nature of electricity? 
Describe the Leyden Jar. Distinguish between intensity and 
resistance, 

' 69. How may a body be electrified % 
Ans,— In a variety of ways, hut principally by friction. 

Notes.— There are two kinds of electrical discharges, viz. pos- 
itive and negative. Electricities ot the same kind repel each 
other; those of opposite kinds attract each other. 

Glass rubbed with cat-skiu becomes negatively electrified; but 
when rubbed with silk, positively electrified. 

A body can be electrified by induction, or by contact. 

A very great number of electrical machines have been devised, 
but the simplest form is known as the electroplwrous. 

Query.— If silk is rubbed with the hand, is it positively or neg- 
atively electrified? What are the five classes of electricity? 

70. What are conductors of electricity ? 

Ans.— Bodies that offer no resistance to the passage ol 
electricity through them are conductors. When thev do. 



Physics. 359 

they are non-conductors, or insulators. Copper is one of 
the best conductors; glass one of the best insulators. When 
a conductor is supported on a non-conductor, it is said to 
be insulated. 

Query.— Which of the following are conductors? Wood, iron, 
air (moist and dry), water, silk and paper. What does current 
electricity produce? 

7L What is the theory of lightning rods ? 

Ans.-— They protect the building on which they are 
placed, either by conducting the- discharge to the earth, or 
by quietly neutralizing, the electrified cloud by discharg- 
ing opposite electricity into it. 

Note.— There are two hypotheses of electricity : the single- 
fluid, first produced by Franklin; the double-fluid, offered by 
Symmer and DuFaye. The terms are self-explanatory. 

Query.— Has nature provided any lightning-rods. 

72. What is an electroscope ? 

Ans. — It is an instrurhent used to determine the kind 
of electricity with which a body is charged. 

73. What are the effects produced by the 
electric discharge ? 

Ans.— Thermal, Physiological, Luminous, Mechanical, 
and Chemical. 

H. What is Voltaic electricity ? 

Ans. — That produced by chemical action. 

Note. —Gal vlni (1790) ascribed the convulsive twitching of a 
frog's legs to a vital fluid. Volta ascribed these movements to the 
Contact of two dissimilar metals, known as the " contact theory n \ 
feui afterwards demonstrated by his Pile that it was produced by 



360 . Dime Question Books. 

Ex.— Lay a silver dollar on a sheet of zino, and on the 
coin place a living snail. No sooner does the creature in 
moving about get partly off the dollar and on the zinc, 
than it receives a shock and recoils. The slime acts 
chemically on the zinc. 

75. Name the sources of current electricity ? 

Ans.— Voltaic currents produced by chemical action; 
Thermo-electric produced by the action of heat; and 
Magneto-electric produced by the motion of magnets. 

Note.— Frictional electricity is called dynamic; i. e. a force 
either at rest, or in motion. The veloeity of electricity through a 
copper wire is estimated to be 288,000 miles per second. De- 
cribe Grove's and Bunsen's battewes. 

76. Describe the Electric light. 

Ans. — It is the vaporization of carbon electrodes (nega- 
tive and positive) by means of combustion. There are 
tvjo methods of electric lighting. One by incandescence 
of a poor conductor, as in Edison's mode; and the other 
by the electric arc between carbon points not in contact, 
as in Brush's method. The growth of the negative carbon 
at the expense of the positive, renders it necessary to adopt 
some means by which the carbons may be kept at a dis- 
tance apart; for if they should get too far apart, the cur- 
rent at once ceases, and the light goes out, in which case 
the carbons must be brought together again, and slowly 
separated before the light appears. The carbons are kept 
apart by various forms of regulators, one of the simplest 
of which is called the JablocMojf Candle. But such is the 
progress that has been made, that this contrivance is al- 
ready considered behind the times. The great tower light 
for light house service is wonderful. It revolves slowly, 
sweeping a grand cone of light like a comet's tali along 



Physics. 361 

the roofs of houses, sometimes bringing out the facade of 
a piece of antique architecture as if daylight were upon it, 
and again glittering like sunshine on the trees. 

Query.— What is the voltaic or electric arc? Why is electri- 
city called a force? Why will a polished globe remain electrified 
longer than one that is not? 

77. "What is Magnetism ? 

Ans. — It is the science that treats of the laws, proper- 
ties, and phenomena of magnets. A magnet is a body 
that possesses the power of attracting and repelling other 
magnets. Magnets are either natural or artificial. 

Query.— What are natural magnets called? From what did 
the magnet derive its name? 



78. What is the law of magnets? 

Ans. — The same as that of electrical attractions and 
repulsions. A magnet receives magnetism by induction 
(that is, by being brought into its magnetic field), and by 
contact. 

Query.— Where is the magnetic pole in the northern hemis- 
phere? By whom discovered? 

79. How and by whom was the compass dis- 
covered % 

Ans. — The compass is said to have been known to the 
Chinese, 1115 B. C. ; but this seems to be a mistake. They 
had a machine which self moved, pointed toward the 
south, and safely guided travelers by land or water. 

Flavio Gioja, a navigator of Naples, introduced the 
suspension of the needle, as we have it now, in 1302. 
Until this time the needle was laid upon a couple oi 
pieces of straw, or small split sticks in a vessel of water. 



802 Dime Question Cooks. 

The variation of the compass was discovered by Colum- 
bus in 1492. 

Note.— On certain lines upon the earth's surface, called lines 
of no variation, the needle points toward the poles; but the com- 
pass is liable to err in its indications from various causes, some of 
local, and others of a general nature. "When the needle is dis- 
turbed, it oscillates, until it gradually settles and points steadily to 
two points which are diametrically opposite to each other. A3 
very little is known, comparatively speaking, of terrestrial mag- 
netism, and its causes and effects, no hypothesis respecting the 
erratic movements of the needle can be received with safety, or 
considered satisfactory. 

80. What is a magnetic needle ? 

Ans. — A magnetized bar of steel, supported at its cen- 
tre of gravity on a point around which it is free to move. 
The end which points toward the north pole of the earth, 
is called the north pole of the needle. 

Note.— The earth induces magnetism, for all iron bars stand- 
ing vertically possess slight magnetic properties, and on being 
tested by the magnetic needle, will be found to possess north 
polarity in the end next to the ground, and south polarity in the 
other end. 

Query.— What is meant by the declination and inclination of 
the needle? Where is the line of no-variation? What is mag- 
netism by induction? 

81. What is meant bv induced electrical cur- 
rents % 

Ans.— A conductor conveying a current of electricity 
will induce a momentary current of electricity in a neigh- 
boring conductor, whenever the intensity of the current is 
increasing or diminishing. 

Query.— What is a Galvanometer ? Eow is the Astatic neealt 
formed? 



Physics. 863 

82. What is electro -metallurgy? 

Ans.— It is the process of depositing one metal on 
another by the action of an electrical current. 

Note.— Electro-plating is the suspension of the article to be 
plated in a solution ef cupric sulphate, so as to make it the nega- 
tive pole of a galvanic arrangement. If a metallic rod is attached 
to one end of a copper wire and a strip of zinc to the other end, 
and both ends are immersed in a solution of cupric sulphate, the 
rod will be plated with copper; bjit in practice an extraneous bat- 
tery is used. A vessel is gold-lined by filling it with a solution of 
gold, suspending in it a slip of the same from the positive elec- 
trode, and then attaching the negative electrode to the vessel; 
while the current passing through the liquid causes it to bubble 
like soda-water, and in a few minutes, deposits a thin film of gold 
over the entire surface. 

83. What is meant by the Electrolysis of 
water ? 

Ans.— If two platinum strips be made the electrodes of 
a voltaic battery, and plunged into water which has been 
rendered slightly acid for the purpose of increasing its 
conducting power, the current in passing through the 
water will decompose it, and hydrogen will be given off 
at the negative electrode, and oxygen at the positive. 

84. What is the principle of the magnetic 

telegraph ? 

Ans.— It depends for its operation on the fact that a 
core of soft iron, surrounded by a coil of insulated wire, 
can be instantly magnetized and de-magnetized by com- 
pleting or breaking an electric current, in the circuit of 
which the coil is placed. 

Query.— What is electrotyping? What is gilding? Explain 
the difference between permnent-magnets and electro-magnets. 
Should electricity be employed as a curative agent? 



364 Dime Question Books. 

Note.— A variety of dynamo-eleetric machines are now con 
structecl, among which is the Gramme Machine. They are very 
successfully employed for the production of electricity for illumi- 
nation and for eleetre-plating. The power possessed by electro- 
magnets of retaining their magnetism only during the passage ol 
the eleetrical current enables them to be employed in a great 
variety of electrical apparatus. 

85. Name the late inventions. 

Ans. — The Telephone, invented by Bell; the michro- 
plione by Prof. Hughes; the phonograph, an apparatus 
for recording the sounds of the voice, and reproducing 
them at any future time, invented by Edison. 

86. Describe the Microphone. 

Ans. — The microphone is a variety of telephone by 
means of which faint sounds, such as the steps of a fly 
over the board, can be heard at a great distance. The 
microphone is placed near the place where the sounds are 
originated, and connected by means of a carbon transmit- 
ter with a battery and telephone. 

Note.— "The microphone is to the telephone what the micro- 
scope is to the telescope. The microphone enables us to hear 
minute sounds, and the telephone conveys sounds to a great dis- 
tance ; the microscope permits us to see minute objects, and the 
telescope larger and distant ones." 

87. What is the Teleradiophone 2 

Ans. — An ingenious adaptation of the photophone to 
telegraphy by M. Mercadier, the eminent French electri- 
cian. 

«ttt*«trgtota*, tymltt, n\u\ gxMmt in g&jjiste. 

What causes the white streaks on a plastered wall! 
How many horse-powers are required to raise 6 cu. ft. of 
water each minute to the height of 100 feet? Why can 



Physics. 365 

not water be poured out of a full tumbler without run- 
ning down the outside? A porter will carry 800 lbs; how 
many lbs. could he carry if he were placed halfway 
between the surface and the centre of the earth, and 
retained the same strength ? Ans. 1600. I drop a pebble 
into a well, and hear it strike the bottom in exactly 3£ 
seconds. How deep is the well? A man weighing 160 
lbs., and a boy 29 lbs., are teetering on aboard. How 
near must the man sit to the rest to balance the boy? 
What is the greatest distance the human voice has ever 
been heard? Why is it darker from about half past one 
to about half past three than either before or after? If 
two nozzles, one of them half an inch in diameter, and the 
other one inch be attached to the same hose of an engine, 
which nozzle will throw the highest stream, vertically? 
Under what conditions might a cubic inch of lead weigh 
as much [as a cubic foot of lead at a place above the 
earth's surface? Ans. — If a man falling from a tower 
were to hold a cubic inch of lead in one hand, and a cubic 
foot of lead in the other, there would be no difference in 
their weight, as neither would have any weight. Where 
would a cubic inch of lead weigh as much as a cubic foot 
of lead does weigh? Ans. — Let a cubic inch of lead weigh 
1 oz. ; then a cu. ft. would weigh 1728 oz. . \ (x -\- 4000) 3 : 
4000 3 :: 1728 : 1, from which x 2 + SCOOs = 27,632,000,- 
000, and x = 162276. 8-f- miles above the earth's surface. 
Is it correct to say that 50° C. is twice as hot as 25° C? 
What is a Bell receiver? What is a Gram? What is the 
difference between gravity and gravitation? What is the 
mechanical equivalent of heat? If the base cf the plane 
were 5 feet, its height 2 feet, and the man pushed parallel 
to the base, how much force must he exert to lift a barrel 
of Hour? What causes the sweating of a pitcher? Sup- 
pose a body to be thrown upward with a velocity of 729 



366 Dime Question Books. 

feet per second, to what height will it rise? How long 
does it take a ray from the moon to reach the earth, the 
moon's distance being 240,000 miles? A balloon was ris- 
ing at the rate of 96 feet a second, when at the height of 
B60 feet a man fell out. How far did he fall if he fell to the 
earth? Ans.— 300 + 96 3 -v- 64^ feet = 443.25+ feet. 
The indestructibility of matter is the first great principle of 
modern science, and to Lavoisier belongs the glory of hav- 
ing first distinctly asserted it. What will be the time of 
vibration of a pendulum thirteen feet long? thirty feet 
long? If A and B carry between them, on a pole 9 feet 
long, a load of 150 pounds, how much will A bear when 
the load is 3 feet from him? 6 feet? What is Avogadro's 
Law? The distance of a man's hand from his elbow is 16 
in. The biceps muscle is inserted in his fore arm 2 inches 
from the elbow. With what power must the muscle act 
to sustain a weight of 56 lbs. in the extended hand? The 
cannonading at Antwerp in 1832 was heard in the mines 
of Saxony, 320 miles distant. In how many seconds was 
the report transmitted? What is the spectroscope? 
Electricity as known to the Ancients. Thales, one of 
the seven wise men of Greece, who flourished 600 years 
B. C. , is said to have discovered electricity in amber. The- 
ophrastus, and Pliny, at a later date, speak of th^ attrac- 
tion of amber for leaves and straws. Both Pnhy and 
Aristotle were acquainted with the electrical properties of 
the torpedo, and we are informed that a freedman of the 
Emperor Tiberius cured himself of gout by the use of its 
shocks. Yet the ancients appear to have known nothing 
more than a few isolated facts connected with the sub- 
ject; and as a science Electricity had no existence till 
the commencement of the seventeenth century. It is 
calculated that the light from the polar star requires 3i 
years to reach the earth; what is its distance? Why do 
sea-shells give a murmuring noise when held to the ear? 
Why does lightning turn milk sour? What principle is 
embodied in the Ruhmkorff coil? What is a thermo-pilef 
What is the most diathermanous substance known? 



— <€*$&£*— ' 



What is Said of the Dime Question Books* 



From John Kennedy, State Conductor of Institutes, New 
York, and author of " The Philosophy of School Discipline," " The 
School and the Family," etc. : 

Schenectady, N. Y., October 3, 1882. 
C. W. Bardeen, Esq. : 

My Dear Sir— I wish to thank you for copies of Southwick'3 
Dime Question Books. I have examined them with pleasure. 
A question book can be so easily made a bad thing, and the finan- 
cial temptation to making bad question books is so great that I 
am really delighted to find a good question book. 

The bad question book fosters cram ; the good one suggests 
study. Mr. Southwick's system is good. It is happy and nour- 
ishing. I hope you may sell a million of them. 

Yours truly, John Kennedy. 

WHAT THE BEST SCHOOL JOURNALS SAY. 

" Valuable little books for school use."— New England Journal 
of Education. 

"Books that teachers will need and will buy."— Practical 
Teacher, Chicago. 

" The subject-matter is sufficient to enable any candidate to 
pass a favorable examination."— The Teacher, Philadelphia. 

" We have looked them over several times without getting any 
light on the puzzle how such little books contrive to hold so 
much."— Iowa School Journal. 

" The plan is to systematize and render easier the plan of ask- 
ing questions on these general subjects, and^he author has ad- 
mirably succeeded. Teachers will find them valuable aids."— 
Indianapolis Journal. 

" No teacher or student will fail to receive many times their 
money's worth."— Common School Visitor. 

" The persons are few who may not be aided by these little 
TOlumes."— School News. 

"Full answers are furnished, with notes and queries, and the 
series is well calculated to be helpful to the teacher."— Portland 
Transcript. 

" They are epitomes of knowledge and convenience, serving 
pupils as well as instructors."— Boston Commonwealth. 

M In these days of written ordeals for aspiring teachers, and 
of competitive Civil Service examinations, anything which is con- 
ducive to the ' cramming process ' is eagerly sought. Hence, there 
has arisen a demand for comprehensive summaries and for series 



of questions analogous to those usually given. General lnforma* 
tion on any subject of importance is desirable; yet the sort of 
study indicated above has a tendency to cheap, superficial, patch' 
work culture. The author of the above series has, how- 
ever, DISPLAYED RARE ABILITY AS A QUESTIONER. Nor does 

he stop with questions ; many of them are answered clearly and 
fully. There are notes, references, bits of curious information, 
and scores of short, sharp, unanswered queries well adapted to 
stimulate research on the part of the student. Nothing profound 
is attempted; our author comes directly to the point."— The 
Student. 

" The immense sale of the Regents' Questions in Arithmetic, 
Geography, Grammar and Spelling has led to frequent inquiry for 
Similar questions in advanced subjects. To meet this demand, the 
publisher has had prepared a series of Question Books, of which 
these four are among the earliest issues. Mr Southwick, a grad- 
uate of a New England college and a teacher of long experience, 
possesses, like the late W. D. Henkle, of Ohio, a rare faculty for 
asking questions, and a still rarer faculty for answering them. 
Nothing could be more different than these volumes from the dry, 
categorical catalogue prepared by the man who wants to make out 
Sixty questions on a subject, and keeps counting them up on his 
fingers to see how soon he can get through. Mr. Southwick is full 
of his subject— enthusiastic, wary, everywhere stimulating. He 
selects the most essential points, asks his questions simply, an- 
swers them clearly and fully: but he is not satisfied with this. 
Every page brims with notes— now a bit of information, now a 
good-natured satire, now a score of short, sharp questions, that 
Irresistibly set one to thinking. If there is really an Art of Ques- 
tioning, Mr. Southwick is master of it. We know of no other 
question-books so entertaining to the general reader. The old 
fisherman complained of the stories in Webster's Dictionary that 
they were ' unco' short.' In these books there is brevity, but the 
author's warm individuality breathes through the isolated ques- 
tions and mates them an organized whole, sure of and worthy etf 
thoughtful attention."— Northern Indiana School Journal, 



Davis (W. W.) FRACTIONAL APPARATUS, consisting of 
eight wooden balls, three inches in diameter, one whole, 
and the others divided respectively into halves, thirds, 
quarters, sixths, eighths, tenths and twelfths. In wooden box, 4 00 

A MANUAL OF SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING 

FRACTIONS, specially designed to accompany a Fractional 
Apparatus for developing the idea of Fractions. Paper, 12mo., 
pp. 43 _ _ 25 

Farnliam (Geo. L.) THE SENTENCE METHOD of teaching 
Reading, Writing, and Spelling. A Manual for Teachers. 
Cloth, 12mo., pp. 50 50 

Fitch (Joshua G.) The Art of Questioning. Second Edition. 

Paper, 12mo., pp. 36 15 

The Art of Securing Attention. Paper, 16mo., pp. 43 15 

Hendrick (Mary F.) A series of Questions in English and Ameri- 
can Literature, prepared for Class-Drill and Private Study. 
Second Edition. Boards, 12mo., pp. 100, interleaved 35 

Hoose (James H.) Studies in Articulation: a study and drill-book 
in the alphabetic elements of the English language. Fourth 
Thousand. Cloth, 16mo., pp. 70 _ 50 

On the Province of Methods of Teaching. A professional 

study. With an introduction by Prof. Charles W. Bennett, 

D. D. Cloth, 16mo., pp. 376 1 00 

Hughes (James L.) MISTAKES IN TEACHING. American 

Edition, with Contents and Index. Cloth, 16mo.,pp. 135 50 

New York STATE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. Being" 
the questions given at all the Examinations for State Certifi- 
cates from the beginning to the present time, embracing 3000 
questions in Reading, Writing, Drawing, Arithmetic, "Geog- 
raphy, Grammar, United States History, General History, 
Algebra, Geometry, Book-Keeping, Composition, Rhetoric, 
Literature, Civil Government, Physiology, Zoology. Botany, 
Geology, Mineralogy, Physics, Methods, School Economy, 
School Law, together with Latin as an optional in the place 
of Geometry. To which is added a List of the Successful 
Candidates. Flexible cloth, 16mo., pp. 191 r ... : 25 

Hutton (H. H.) A MANUAL OF MENSURATION, for use 

in Common Schools and Academies. Paper 12mo., pp. 100. 1 00 

Huntington (Rt. Rev. F. D.) Unconscious Tuition. Second 

Edition. Paper, 16mo., pp. 45 15 

Kennedy (John) The Philosophy of School Discipline. Paper, 

16ino., pp. 23 _ _ 15 

Locke (John) Some Thoughts concerning Education. Paper, 

24mo., pp. 192 25 

Maps for the Wall. Kew York State, colored by counties, 

3|x4 ft., on heavy paper __ 2 00 

The same, mounted on cloth - 3 00 

United States, colored by counties, 34x5 ft., with map of 
the World upon the back, paper.. 2 00 

United States, 42x50 inches, cloth, tlie best school wall map 
made _ ._ 5 00 

Johnson" s National Maps. 45x50 inches, per set of seven ..30 00 



Mann (Horace) The Study of Physiology in Schools. Paper, 

24mo., pp. 152 25 

ISTortham (Henry C.) Civil Government for Common Schools. 
Prepared as a manual for Public Instruction in the State 
of New York. To which are appended the Constitution of 
the (State of New York, as amended at the election of 1880, 
the Constitution of the United States, and the Declaration of 
Independence. Sixth Edition, mostly from entirely new 
plates. Cloth, 16mo., pp. 185. 75 

Periodicals. The School Bulletin and New York State Educa- 
tional Journal. Established 1874. Monthly, 16 pp., 10x14. 
Per Year 1 00 

Bound Vols. I— VII, Cloth, 200 pp., each - 2 00 

The New Education and Kindergarten Messenger. Established 

1877. Monthly, 16 pp., 7x10. Per year 1 00 

TOPICS OF THE DAY, a Monthly Leaflet for Supplemen- 
tary Reading in Public Schools. 2 pp., 6x9. Per year... 36 

THE SCHOOL ROOM. A Monthly Journal of Practical 

Help to Young Teachers. 16 pp., 7x11. Per year 50 

Payne (W. H.) A SHORT HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 
Being a reprint of the article Education from the 9th edition 
of the Encyclopaedia Hrittanica. With an introduction, bib- 
liography, notes and references. "Cloth, 16mo., pp. 105 50 

Pooler (Charles T.) Chart of Civil Government. A list of the 
Law-Making Powers and Officers, arranged according to 
the similarity of their duties, in the United States, State of 
New York, County, Town, School-District, City, and In- 
corporated Village. Cloth, 16 mo., folded - 25 

The Same, in sheets 12x18, per hundred 5 00 

HINTS ON TEACHING ORTHOEPY. Paper, 12mo., 

pp. 15 '- 10 

Regents' Questions. Ten Editions. Complete with Key. The 
Regents' Questions from the first examination in 1866. Being 
the Questions for the preliminary examinations for admission 
to the University of the State of New York, prepared by the 
Regents of the University, and participated in simultaneously 
by more than 250 academies, forming a basis for the distri- 
bution of more than a million of dollars. 4-Sd Edition, to 

June, 1880. Cloth, 16mo., pp.408 - 2 00 

Complete, without Key. 1 00 

Arithmetic, 1153 Questions. 25 

Key to Arithmetic 25 

Geography, 1687 Questions. 25 

Key to Geography 25 

Grammar. 2665 Questions 25 

Grammar and Key with References to Leading Grammars..- 1 00 

Spelling, 4400 Words 25 

1000 Arithmetic Questions, Card-board slips and Key 1 00 

Richards on (Benjamin Ward) Learning and Health, Paper, 

16mo., pp. 39 --- 15 

Any book in this list will be promptly sent on receipt of price. 
Address C. W. BARDEEN, Syracuse, N. Y. 



